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OUTLINES OF GENERAL HISTORY 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO 
ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN & CO., Limited 

LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. 

TORONTO 



OUTLINES 

OF 

GENERAL HISTORY 



BY 



V. A. RENOUF, B.A. 

PROFESSOR OF HISTORY AND POLITICAL ECONOiMY AT THE 
PEI YANG UNIVERSITY, TIENTSIN 



WITH MAPS. AND ILLUSTRATIONS 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
1909 

All rights reserved 



^'%\ 

.?^- 



Copyright, 1909, 
By the MACMILLAN COMPANY. 



Set up and electrotyped. Published June, 1909. 



• Norfajooti ^9res3: 

Berwick & Smith Co., Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. 



LiBRARY of CONGRESS 

Two Cooies Received 



TO MY WIFE 

WHOSE INTEREST AND ACTIVE HELP HAVE FURTHERED 

THE WORK AT EVERY STEP, THIS BOOK 

IS DEDICATED 



PREFACE 

The present book was written to meet the special 
wants of a new and rapidly increasing class of students 
in the East. Amono- the Western studies which are 
being introduced into the schools of China, history- 
will always hold an important place. It is only 
through a study of general history, and especially of 
Western history, that an Eastern student can learn 
to understand the place of his own country among 
the nations of the world. The new movement 
towards constitutional government makes a study of 
Western institutions doubly necessary. 

While there is no lack of admirable text-books 
on general history, there is yet not one among them 
which fills the requirements of the average Eastern 
student. He is usually a mature young man, who 
has passed through a course of training in the 
language and literature of his own country. He does 
not want a text-book for schoolboys. On the other 
hand, he is nearly always a beginner in English. 
Involved sentences, high-flown metaphors, allusions 
to Greek mythology or to Bible passages, are all 
stumbling blocks which may at times prove insur- 
mountable even for the native teacher. Simplicity 



viii PREFACE 

of style will be greeted with the same feeling of 
relief as that which arises in the heart of the Western 
schoolboy when he meets with an easy passage in 
his Latin author. 

Aside from the method of treatment and presenta- 
tion, the point of view in this book differs widely 
from the one naturally taken in a text-book for English 
or American students. The purely intellectual and 
artistic side of Graeco-Roman history must needs 
be neglected. It is a subject too strange to the 
Eastern mind to make a summary treatment profitable. 
The religious struggles of the Reformation in Europe 
present a strife of dogmas which have no- more 
interest to the Asiatic than the sects of Japanese 
Buddhism have to the European. Hence one short 
chapter contains the whole Era of the Protestant 
Reformation. On the other hand, all those events 
which have tended to connect the East and the West 
have received the fullest treatment possible in so 
short a book. A far larger proportion of space than 
usual is assigned to the history of Islam, and to the 
Mongol and Turkish conquests. 

Since the book is intended primarily for Chinese 
students, it may be urged that the half chapter on 
ancient Chinese history and institutions is superfluous. 
But apart from the hope that the book may be found 
useful also outside of China, the passage was inserted, 
after long reflection, purposely for the perusal of the 
Chinese. They can profit from it in two ways : First, 
by seeing what proportion their own history bears to 
universal history ; and secondly, by observing for a 
moment some familiar facts from that wholly objective 



PREFACE ix 

point of view which a man can rarely attain in regard 
to his own country. 

The book aims to relate in the simplest possible 
language the grand outlines of the world's history. 
The dominant force in the modern world is that 
complex historical compound called * Western Civiliza- 
tion.' The history of that Western Civilization must 
therefore occupy the greatest part of any modern 
General History, no matter whether it is intended 
for Asiatic or for European students. In condensing 
the history of the West into so small a compass, 
much had to be omitted which another writer might 
consider of importance. The student can judge how 
meagre the history is, when he learns that the 
passages on Eastern history are treated proportionally 
just as fully as most periods of the West. 

An Elementary History like the present, then, 
always represents a small selection from an immense 
range of facts. The reader has a right to ask by 
what principles the author was guided in making his 
selection, I tried to do the following ; First, to show 
the continuity of history, or, in other words, to make 
the reader see that the present has grown out of the 
past. Secondly, to emphasize those events and institu- 
tions a knowledge of which is most useful to persons 
interested in public reforms in the East. Thirdly, to 
show the value of high ideals of truth, and the advan- 
tage of liberal institutions. Under this third heading I 
confess to a personal bias, I believe, however, that 
the book is free from religious or racial prejudice. 

For the convenience of beginners parts of the 
text are printed in smaller type. These passages 



X PREFACE 

can be omitted without breaking the continuity of 
the narrative. They are integral parts of the book, 
and should be carefully studied by classes able to 
master the whole. 

A compilation like the present must necessarily be 
based on the authoritative works of many historians, 
rather than on original sources. The list of authors 
to whom I am indebted for information is too long 
for enumeration. I have derived much help from a 
recent American compilation entitled The Historians' 
History of the World, published in twenty-five octavo 
volumes by the Outlook Company of New York. 
When my own library, combined with the young 
historical library of the Pei Yang University, proved 
insufficient for my needs, I was often enabled to 
find in that work of reference authorities and even 
sources to set me right. In the difficult work 
of selection I was often guided by the admirably 
condensed articles in the German Encyclopedia of 
Brockhaus. 

It was only after having been for three years 
engaged in teaching historical classes at the Pei 
Yang University, that I felt qualified to write a text- 
book like the present. Its shortcomings are sure to be 
many, but it was certainly composed with the greatest 
care. Before publication I used it in teaching a class 
of Normal Students preparing to act as teachers in 
the Government Middle Schools of Chihli Province. 
The needs of these very schools called for the earliest 
possible publication of the book. I am distressed that 
I could not have the work ready sooner; yet haste 
would surely have increased its faults. 



PREFACE xi 

May it prove a source of interest and enlightenment 
for many ! 

In conclusion I beg to thank the publishers for 
their generosity in furnishing maps and illustrations 
out of their large stock, thus making it possible to 
fix a sale price considerably lower than is usual 
for books which are equally well printed and fitted 
out. I also thank my colleagues, Professors Th. T. 
Read and W. A. Seavey, for their valuable help 
in reading the proof sheets. 

Pei Yang University, 
Tientsin, China, December isf, 1907. 



PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION 

The thorough revision of this book has not led to any 
great changes. I have received valuable criticism and 
suo-orestions from friends at home and from fellow- 
workers in the field of Western education in the East, 
and take this opportunity of thanking them. My 
special thanks are due to two of my former teachers, 
Professor J. M. Vincent of the Johns Hopkins Uni- 
versity, and Professor Edward Channing, of Harvard 
University. I am under equal obligations to Presi- 
dent F. L. Hawks Pott, D.D., of St. John's Univer- 
sity, Shanghai. 

V. A. R. 

Marc/i, 1909. 



CONTENTS 



PAGE 



tiST OF Maps - . , xvii 

.Suggestions to Teachers - - - - - . - - xix 

.Introduction : The Relation of History to other 

Branches of Learning ------- i 

PART I. ANCIENT HISTORY 

CHAPTER 

I. Egypt - . . ^ .; - . _ \ , . ._ . 9 

' TI. Babylonia and Assyria - - ■ - - - . - 19 

III. The Jews and the Phoenicians 

A. The Jews -----..- 30 

B. The Phoenicians 35 

IV. The Persians - 39 

V. The Ancient Oriental Countries 

Introduction - - - 46 

I. India - -' ^- -"" '- - - - - ' 47 

II. China --------- 54 

III. Japan - . . 57 

VI. Greek History to the Persian Wars - - - 71 

VII. The Persian Wars and the Age of Pericles - - 88 



xiv CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

VIII. The Mutual Destruction of the Greek States, 

AND THEIR CONQUEST BY PHILIP OF MACEDON - I05 

IX. Hellenic Civilization ir8 

X. Alexander the Great and his Successors - - 125 

XI. History of Rome to the First Punic War - - 133 

XII. From the First Punic War to the Destruction 

OF Carthage 145 

XIII. The Decay of the Roman Republic, and the 

Growth of One-Man Power 155 

XIV. The Roman Empire ------- 172 

XV. Some Important Topics in Roman History - - 182 



PART 11. MEDIAEVAL HISTORY 

Introduction - - -188 

XVI. Germanic History to the Death of Charlemagne 189 

XVII. Mohammed and the Spread of Islam - - - 201 

XVIII. European History from the Treaty of Verdun 

TO the Close of the Crusades - - - . 210 

XIX. The Mongol Conquests and the Ottoman Empire 225 

XX. General View of Europe to the Close of the 

Middle Ages - - 237 



CONTENTS XV 



PART III. MODERN HISTORY 

SECTION I. 

FROM THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA TO THE 
FRENCH REVOLUTION 

CHAPTER PAGE 

XXI. The Period of Discovery; Portuguese and 

Spanish Colonies - 251 

XXII. The Era of the Protestant Reformation - 257 

XXIII. A Century of Religious Conflict - - - 267 

XXIV. A Century of English History 

Introduction 283 

A. The Reign of Elizabeth - . . . _ 283 

B. The First Period of Stuart Rule - - - 289 

C. The Commonwealth and the Protectorate - - 295 

XXV. The Height and the Decline of the French 

Monarchy - - - 298 

XXVI. The Rise of Prussia - 310 

XXVII. The Rise of Modern Russia 318 

XXVIII. English and American History from the 
Restoration to the Foundation of the 
United States ..--.-. 326 

SECTION II. 

FROM THE FRENCH REVOLUTION UNTIL 
RECENT TIMES 

XXIX. The French Revolution 339 

XXX. The Napoleonic Era ..---. 352 

XXXI. The Material and Intellectual Progress of 

the World since the Eighteenth Century 366 
b 



xvi CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

XX^II. Recent History of France, Spain, Switzerland, 
Belgium, Holland, and the Scandinavian 
Countries - . . 382 

XXXIII. The Unification of Germany and of Italy - 394 

XXXIV. Russia and the Balkans in: the Nineteenth 

Century - 402 

XXXV. The ' British- Empire, and the Colonial Ex- 
pansion of Europe - - - - -. - 421 

. XXXVI. The American Countries during the Nine- 

■' ' teenth Century- - - - . ' . . 445 

XXXVII. The Transformation of the Far East - - 455 

Appendix , ;: /, ^ :,;..._ , : ._ 

I. Suggestive Questions and Exercises; - -- - - 477 
II. Comparative Chronological Table of a few Great Periods 



Index 



and Events 435 

■ - - - - - - - - - - 487 



LIST OF MAPS 

PAGE 

Ancient Egypt -- lo 

Lydia, Media, and Babylonia - - - - - - 21 

Persian Empire at its Greatest Extent - - - - 40 

Ancient China and Japan 55 

China under the T'ang Dynasty - - - - - - 65 

Greece .-.. 70 

Marathon ..90 

Battle of Salamis 96 

The Campaigns and the Empire of Alexander the Great 127 

Italy before the Growth of the Roman Empire - - 135 

The Mediterranean Lands at the beginning of the 

Second Punic War 149 

The Empire of Julius Caesar 165 

The Roman Empire under Trajan 177 

Europe during the Reign of Charles the Great - - 198 

Mohammedan Empire at its Greatest Extent - - - 208 

Europe in the time of Otto I. - - - - . -217 

The Mongol Empire ----.... 224 

Ottoman Empire under Suleiman I. - - - - - 233 



xviii LIST OF MAPS 

PAGE 

Western Europe about 1460 - - - . - 1. - 236 

Europe at the close of the 30 Years' War - - - 285 

Europe after the Treaty of Utrecht . - . . 307 

Russian Territorial Development 324 

The Colonies of North America ------ 337 

Manchurian Campaign 411 

Modern China and Japan - - - - , , . 417 

India and the Indo-Chinese Peninsula . , - « 433 

Louisiana Purchase --..-»-.- 447 

Union and Confederate States - - - - - - 451 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 

Classes with only a " fair knowledge " of English should 
follow the shorter course indicated by the large type. They 
can probably master it in one year (two semesters), having 
four hours of history per week, besides study hours. Classes 
knowing English well enough to have no trouble with con- 
structions, and little trouble with the vocabulary, can follow 
the full text during the same period. In most cases the best 
plan will be this : Take the shorter course in the first year, 
and study the book as a whole in the second year of 
historical work. If possible, the study of history should be 
taken up after geography. 

For most classes the study of this book will also be an 
exercise in English. To ensure a complete understanding, 
every student should translate the text into his native 
tongue. 

A brief text-book of history or geography can be made 
alive only by the voice of the teacher. He should, if 
possible, amplify and illustrate the text by short discourses 
in the native idiom. For this purpose his knowledge must 
exceed considerably the information given in the text-book. 
A small historical library should be in every teacher's hands, 
and its acquisition is urgently recommended to the school 
authorities. 

The following books will be found helpful : 

I. Very Elementary: Colby's Outlines of General 
History. 



XX SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 

II. Elementary: Myers' Ancient History; Myers' 
Mediaeval and Modern History. 

III. Advanced: J. H. Breasted, A History of Egypt; 
R. W. Rogers, History of Babylonia and Assyria ; W. W. 
Hunter, Brief History of the Indian Peoples; J. B. Bury, 
History of Greece ; H. F. Pelham, Outlines of Roman His- 
tory ; E. Emerton, Introduction to the Middle Ages ; E. 
Emerton, Mediaeval Europe ; J. V. Duruy, History of 
France; S. R. Gardiner, A Student's History of England; 
C. A. Fyffe, History of Modern Europe; W. Mueller, Political 
History of Recent Times ; Ch. Seignobos, Political History 
of Contemporary Europe ; E. Channing, A Student's History 
of the United States; J. R. Seeley, The Expansion of England 
(on the English empire). Fuller bibliographies will be found 
in most of these works. 

Should any teacher be so fortunate as to obtain funds 
for a larger historical library, he would find in C. K. Adams' 
Manual of Historical Literature a trustworthy description of 
the principal authorities on all fields of history. With the aid 
of this manual he could select the titles for a larger library. 
The best nucleus of a school library is a good up-to-date 
Cyclopedia, such as the Britannica, or Chambers's, or the 
Century. The Encyclopedia Britannica stands perhaps first ; 
but it is more expensive, and its articles are often so long 
and technical as to discourage a person not having perfect 
command of English. 

Much might be said about methods of teaching history ; but 
the topic is so large that I dare not go beyond a few hints. 

It is well to combine geographical and historical instruc- 
tion, i.e. to refer to historical events connected with places 
in geography, and to point out how geographical features 
have influenced the course of history. 

Students who show special aptitude should be encouraged 
to read in books other than the text-book. Such students 
will benefit themselves and their fellow-students by giving 
reports on special topics to the class. 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS xxi 

Perhaps the best way to stimulate the students' imagination, 
and to make the history alive in their minds, is to draw 
comparisons with events or institutions already familiar to 
them through the history of their native country. A striking 
example is that of early patriarchal institutions in the West, 
which can be paralleled by existing laws and customs in 
China. 

Most Western teachers now discourage students from 
memorizing the text-book. It is not considered a proof 
of real knowledge, if the students are able to reproduce 
verbatim the words of the book. They should rather be 
able to render facts and ideas in their own language. 
Learning by heart easily becomes mechanical, and those 
who depend on it are likely to remember their lessons by 
sound and sight only. They will profit more by using their 
logical sense in tracing the causal connections of facts, and 
by trying to see, in their imagination, real people and places 
rather than mere names. 

Such, in brief, is the paedagogical theory which underlies 
the objection against too much memorizing. The theory 
needs considerable modification, when applied to students 
in the East. By training in the study of their classical 
literatures as well as by heredity, most of them have a more 
tenacious technical memory than the average European or 
American students. Hence memorizing is less of an effort for 
them. On the other hand, several reasons combine to make 
the modern Western method of historical instruction im- 
practicable. The language difficulty experienced by beginners 
in English puts a wider course of reading out of their reach, 
and ties them down to a more laborious study of the text- 
book. Their inability to express themselves readily in' 
English on a wide range of subjects also obliges them to 
fall back on quoting the text literally, instead of using their 
own language. I am therefore actually led to recommending 
that many or even most parts of the text be learned by 
heart. But the teacher should steadily guard against the 



xxii SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 

danger of thoughtless memorizing. The expression of in- 
dividual opinion and the training of the judgment should 
be encouraged at every step. The questions and exercises 
which appear at the end of the book are largely formulated 
with these ends in view. 

As for the historical imagination, it is most easily aroused 
by the study of pictures. Every teacher is recommended to 
make a collection of photographs, pictures from magazines, 
and other illustrative material bearing on history. A 
small show case with glass doors, in which pictures can 
be exhibited for several days, is a useful adjunct of the 
class room. 

In conclusion, I will touch on the question of learning 
dates. These should be memorized by all students. It is 
well to bring as many events as possible into relation with a 
memorized date. For this purpose the table at the end of 
the book will be found useful. The few students who have 
a ready memory for dates can be encouraged to remember 
most or all of them ; but the majority of the class should 
not be burdened with more than are necessary for a correct 
general perspective of the centuries. 



OUTLINES OF GENERAL HISTORY 



GENERAL HISTORY 



INTRODUCTION 

THE RELATION OF HISTORY TO OTHER BRANCHES 
OF LEARNING 

What History is. — History is an ordered account 
of the growth of human societies. It treats principally 
of political events, and must tell also about many 
other things which have influenced the progress of 
nations. Religion, science, art, literature, education, 
and commerce are important in the history of every 
country. 

The Limits of History. — History does not go far 
back into the early development of mankind. Man 
has existed on the earth for about a hundred thousand 
years.^ Our most ancient historical information 
reaches back to a time about six thousand years 
ago. In other words, history is able to treat of only 
about the last seventeenth of the whole story of man. 
Within this last historical period are also many gaps, 
which can never be filled. As regards both ancient 

^ This is the period estimated by Haeckel. Like all other estimates, 
it does not claim to be exact. 

G.H. A 



2 GENERAL HISTORY 

and mediaeval history, what we do not know is much 
more tlian what we do know\ 

The Sources of History. — Historians get their know- 
ledge from w^'itten documents, from inscriptions, and 
from various sources of information left by departed 
people in their buildings and graves. For modern 
history, there is an enormous mass of state papers, 
treaties, reports, newspapers, and books, and the his- 
torian's main difficulty lies in selecting the important 
parts from the bewildering wealth of his material. 
Documents may be written on different kinds of 
paper, on stone, wood, or metal. Inscriptions may 
be found on rocks, on the walls of tombs, or on 
coins. No history of any country can be written 
unless its people have left some such record of their 
activities. Again, if the records of a later period 
are scanty, or unreliable, then the history of that 
period must also be imperfect. 

Prehistoric Times. — The times, of which no definite 
records have been left, are called the prehistoric 
times. It should always be borne in mind, that 
they are incomparably longer than the recent period 
called the historic one. The study of mankind before 
the historic period is called prehistoric archaeology. 
Prehistoric men left utensils, weapons, bones of killed 
animals, and other remains in the caves where they 
used to dwell. There these things, and sometimes 
also the bones of their former owners, remained under 
the soil, until the modern archaeologists dug them 
up again. Large tribes of those ancient savages built 
their villages over the water of lakes. The traces of 
such settlements have been discovered and carefully 



INTRODUCTION 3 

searched. Enough is now known, so that the 
books on prehistoric archaeology form quite a Httle 
library. 

Races of Mankind. — The commonest division of 
mankind is according to the color of the skin. Thus 
three great types are distinguished : The Black Race, 
the Yellow or Mongolian (often called Turanian) 
Race, and the White or European Race. But this 
division, like many others, cannot be strictly applied, 
and it is easy to find people, for example, whose 
skin is not yellow, although they are accounted 
Mongolians. The study of human races is called 
Ethnology. The most difficult problem of ethnology 
is just this of distinguishing the different races 
of man, and determining their points of difference. 
Broadly speaking, the three above-mentioned types 
have existed since the earliest historic times, and 
each has retained its peculiarities unchanged to the 
present day. 

The Black Race. — Most of the members of this 
race, called negroes, have Africa for their original 
home. Being an inferior race, they 
have largely been used as slaves by 
the stronger and cleverer members 
of the higher races. Ancient Egyp- 
tian monuments show captive black 
slaves. In the United States eight 
million negroes are now living as free 
citizens, all of them former slaves or negro. 

descendants of slaves once imported like cattle from 
Africa. 

The Yellow Race. — The Yellow Race is spread over 





4 GENERAL HISTORY 

Eastern, Northern, and Inner Asia. Its most impor- 
tant branch are the Chinese^ the first people of the 
world in point of numbers, and through their con- 
tinuous national history. Universal respect and 
admiration is extended in modern 
times to the Japanese. They have 
shown a remarkable ability for learning; 
the advantages of Western civilization, 
which has quickly lifted them to the 
first place in the East. Until recently 
they had shared with other Mongolian 
peoples a strong conservatism, which 
even amounted to hostility against innovation. The 
lack of progress among both Chinese and Japanese 
during several centuries was due to their geographical 
isolation from the West. The same reason accounts 
for the many contrasts in the manners and customs 
between Eastern and Western nations. From the 
beginning of history until modern times the two 
civilizations have developed quite independently of 
each other. 

A third branch of the Yellow Race, feared for its 
nomadic and warlike habits, are the Mongols of Inner 
Asia. Their cruel conquests have extended from 
China to the borders of Germany. They were only 
destroyers, and founded no permanent states of their 
own. Their present condition of wandering herds- 
men is about the same as it was two thousand years 
ago. Other important Mongolian peoples are the 
Koreans, Manckus, Tibetans, Annamites, 2SiA Btcrmese, 
The Lapps, Finns, and Basques in Europe repre- 
sent the remnants of an ancient Turanian population, 



' INTRODUCTION 5 

which was replaced by members of the White Race. 
The Magyars (Hungarians) and the Turks are Mon- 
golian peoples, who conquered their present homes 
from the European inhabitants. 

The White Race. — The White Race embraces all 
those nations whose history is the story of Western 
civilization. Their exact origin is unknown. In his- 
toric times they have lived in Europe and around the 
Mediterranean. From there they have 
conquered the continents of America 
and Australia, and extended their 
dominion over all parts of the world, 
where barbarous or weak popula- 
tions were unable to resist the new 
masters. 

According to differences of lan- 
guage, the White Race has been white man. 
divided into three groups, called the 
Hamitic, the Semitic, and the Aryan. The Hamitic 
group contains the ancient Egyptians as its most 
famous members. 

The Semites occupied principally the south-western 
part of Asia. The Babylonians and Assyrians ruled 
over large empires from the Gulf of Persia to the 
Mediterranean. The Arabs had the oases and arid 
pastures of Arabia for their home. There they led 
wild and free lives, protected from stronger neighbors 
by the barren deserts, until the teaching of Moham- 
med led them over half the world in a career of 
conquest, ^\i^ Jews or Hebrews were a small people 
who influenced the world by their religious teaching. 
Christ was a Jew, and the Christian beliefs rest 




6 GENERAL HISTORY 

chiefly on the great rehgious classic of the Hebrews, 
the Bible. Mohammedanism is also derived from the 
Jewish belief in one God. The Phoenicians were 
the great trading nation of antiquity. Excepting the 
Arabs, all the Semitic peoples had ended their na- 
tional history two thousand years ago. 

The A7yans adopted most of the civilization 
developed by the Semites, and made it a part of 
all that learning, culture, and power, which is called 
modern Western civilization. First on this great 
path of progress were the Greeks. They attained 
in course of a ' few centuries a stage of culture, 
which in some respects has not been equalled again 
since their decline. The Romans, by their wonderful 
conquests, spread orderly government and the arts of 
peace around the whole Mediterranean, over Western 
Europe, and into Britain. After a period of disorder 
and intellectual decline, the Germanic races became 
the leaders in the renewed progress, which is now 
transforming the ancient civilizations of Asia. 

The principal members of the Germanic race are 
the Germ^ans, the Scandinavians (Danes, Swedes, 
Norwegians), and the English. The people who 
now speak languages descended from the Roman 
(Latin) tongue, are commonly called the Romance 
or Latin nations. Among these Italy, France, and 
Spain stand first. Two more branches of the Aryan 
stock are distinguished in Europe : the Celts and 
the Slavs. The first embrace of modern peoples 
only the Scotch, the Irish, and the Welsh in England, 
and the Bretons in northern France. The leading 
Slavic people are the Russians and the Poles, 



INTRODUCTION 7 

The Relation of History to Geography. — Human beings, like 
all living things, are strongly influenced by the places 
where they live. A farmer working on his fields gets an 
appearance and character different from a sailor or from 
a nomadic herdsman. In the same way whole nations 
are affected by the soil and the climate of the countries 
inhabited by them. So great is this influence that branches 
of the same parent race have become quite different from 
each other after having wandered to different countries. 
It is profitable always to bear this in mind during the 
study of geography, and to try to understand just how 
geographical conditions have helped to determine the 
history of various countries. It follows, on the other 
hand, that the student of history must first have a fair 
knowledge of physical geography. 

Chronology. — The science of measuring time and 
of fixing historical dates is called chronology. (In 
Greek, chronos = \\vc\.^) The divisions of time into 
years, months, and days are determined by the 
relative motions of the stars, sun, moon, and earth. 
With astronomical chronology as a basis, different 
peoples have practised different methods of fixing 
the time of historical events. Several national and 
religious chronologies will be mentioned further on. 
The modern chronology of the European nations is 
evidently destined to become the prevailing one 
throughout the world, as it everywhere accompanies 
the advance of Western ideas. It is practical, and 
is the only one in which scholars have reduced the 
important dates of all nations to one common 
system. 

Modern Western chronology is based on the 
Julian calendar, which was arranged by the order 
of Julius Caesar in 45 b.c, and which was reformed 



8 - GENERAL HISTORY 

in 1582 A.D. by Pope Gregory, whence it is now 
called the Gregorian Calendar. The time since the 
birth of Jesus Christ is called the Christian Era, 
and all dates are referred to the year i, viz. the 
birth-year of Christ. Dates before Christ are 
indicated by the abbreviation B.C., meaning 'before 
Christ,' or by a.c, which stands for the Latin 'ante 
Christum' ( = before Christ). Dates after Christ 
are marked a.d., which is an abbreviation of the 
Latin ' Anno Domini,' meaning ' in the year of the 
Lord' (Jesus Christ). 



PART L ANCIENT HISTORY 

4000 B.C. TO 375 A.D. 

CHAPTER I 

EGYPT 

The Fitness of Egypt for an Early Seat of Civilization. 

— A review of Egyptian geography will convince the 
student that no other country of equal size is better 
suited to provide homes for a farming population. 
The annual Nile floods enrich the soil, and the 
warm climate favours the growth of many kinds of 
crops. Natural conditions in Egypt have not 
changed in any way since the earliest recorded 
times. Although so favoured In many respects, the 
Nile valley never yielded its fruit without hard and 
intelligent work on the part of its inhabitants. The 
lack of rain always obliged the people to bring the 
Nile water on to the fields by irrigation. Irrigation 
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EGYPT II 

district by careless use of the water. This need of 
work and co-operation, coupled with the natural 
advantages, led to the very early rise of civilization 
in Egypt. 

The First Dynasty. — The beginnings of Egyptian 
history are unknown. They must date back before 
5000 B.C., or seven thousand years, ago. Menes 
was the first Pharaoh (Egyptian title of king), and 
founder of the first dynasty, about 3000 b.c. He 
united the many smaller states of Egypt under one 
government, and built the capital city of Memphis, 
near the head of the Delta. 

Into this earliest period, of the history of which nothing 
definite is known, falls the construction of the great Sphinx 
near Memphis. This enormous statue, the oldest work of 
art in existence, is hewn out of the solid rock in form of a 
crouching lion with a human head. It was a representation 
of the sun god. 

The Pyramid Builders. — No other line of kings 
has left such strikins^ monuments as the Fourth 
Dynasty, whose rulers built the biggest pyramids 
near Memphis. Cheops erected the Great Pyramid, 
a mountain of brick and stone rising, in exact 
geometrical lines, to a height of four hundred and 
fifty feet. These perfect engineering works show 
that Egyptian learning had already reached maturity 
at a period when barbarism held sway over the whole 
of Europe. 

The Eighteenth and Nineteenth Dynasties (about 1650 
to 1300 B.C.). — Eight more dynasties had passed 
away when nomadic invaders from Syria occupied 
the Delta, and gradually extended their dominion 



12 ANCIENT HISTORY 

over the whole valley. The foreign rulers were 
called the Hyksos or Shepherd Kings. Although 
barbarians at first, they soon adopted Egyptian 
ways. Five hundred years of Hyksos supremacy 
were violently ended by the revolt of the native 
prince Amosis, who drove out the • foreigners, and 
founded the eighteenth dynasty. This and the 
following dynasty mark the period of Egypt's 
greatest power. The commands of the Pharaohs 
were obeyed from the Sahara to the Euphrates. 
Most noted among many illustrious kings are Seti I. 
and Rameses II. of the nineteenth dynasty. Seti 
began to build a canal from the Red Sea to the 
Nile, an undertaking which was just as important 
for Egyptian trade and sea power, as the Panama 
Canal will be for the United States. The canal 
was finished by Rameses. Clear traces of it can 
still be seen, not far from the Suez Canal. Rameses 
spent most of his glorious reign of sixty-seven years 
in military campaigns and in the erection of great 
public works. A number of gigantic portrait statues, 
and the well-preserved ruins of large temples, the 
walls of which are covered with pictures and inscrip- 
tions, still attest the energy of Rameses the Great. 

The Twenty-sixth Dynasty. — The last notable dy- 
nasty was the twenty-sixth, founded by Psamme- 
tichus I. (663 B.C.). He drove out the Assyrians, who 
had made Egypt one of their provinces. Psamme- 
tichus I. was the first Pharaoh who encouraged 
foreigners to settle in the country. A colony of 
Greeks settled in the Delta, and Greek students 
got knowledge from the Egyptian priests. In this 



EGYPT 



13 



way the inventions of Egypt spread to the other 
Mediterranean countries. Neclio II., the son of 
Psammetichus, continued his father's poHcy. His 
wise government, however, strengthened the country 
only for a while. The Egyptian people had reached 
the limit of their development, and could not profit 




The Great Pyramid, and Sphinx. 



much from the liberal measures of the last o-reat 

o 

Pharaohs. New and vigorous nations rose in place 
of the old. First the Babylonians, and later the 
Persians, held Egypt as a subject province. Alex- 
ander the Great brought the country under Greek 
supremacy, and during the first century after Christ 
the Romans embodied the land of the Pharaohs in 
their empire. No native ruler has since then held 
sway over Egypt. 



14 ANCIENT HISTORY 

Religion, Customs, and Arts. — The Egyptians were 
very religious. Religion ruled the life of the nation, 
from the Pharaoh to the beggar. One-third of the 
land was sacred as property of the temples. The 
houses were built of mud, while the temples were 
reared with stone. 

The temple of Karnak in upper Egypt, near the ancient 
Thebes, is considered to have been the finest and largest 
religious structure built in antiquity. Many of its huge 
columns still overawe modern visitors of the ruins. 

Every district in Egypt had its local gods, but some 
of them were worshipped all over the country. Chief 
among these were Ra, the sun god, and Osiris, who 
represented the benefits of the Nile. Together with 
Osiris, his wife Isis, and their son Horus were 
commonly adored. The Egyptians, like many other 
peoples, felt the need of giving to their gods, who 
represented powers of nature or abstract qualities 
(like the sun, the moon, fertility, health), some visible 
shape. So they made statues of them, mostly looking 
like people with the heads of animals. Often they 
believed that gods actually lived in real animals. 
Hence arose the curious custom of Animal Worship. 
Cats, dogs, and crocodiles were considered to be holy. 
The soul of Osiris was said to reside in a bull, called 
Apis. The Apis was worshipped in his own fine 
temple. On his death the soul of Osiris went into a 
bull calf just then born. (Compare the belief of 
Lamaism : When a Living Buddha dies, the soul of 
Buddha enters a child born at that moment. The 
Dalai Lama of Lassa is considered as the highest 
Living Buddha.) 



EGYPT 



15 



Transmigration of Souls, Resurrection, Embalming, and 
Tombs. — All Egyptians firmly believed that their 
souls would be punished or rewarded, after the 
decease of the body, for the bad or good deeds done 
on earth. Good souls became the friends of Osiris. 
Bad souls had to wander through the bodies of 
animals. The greater the crime the low^er were 
the animals (like pigs, vultures) through which 
the soul had to pass. After many thousand years 
of this punishment the soul might again become 
human. 

After an immensely long time all souls would return 
to their human bodies. This is called the doctrine of 
the Resurrection, and is found in many later religions 
(viz. Christianity and Mohammedanism). In order 
that the soul might find its old body on the day of 
resurrection, the Egyptians preserved the bodies with 
medicines. The process is called embalming, and em- 
balm.ed corpses are called Mtunmies. Many thousands 
of mummies have been found. Those of Seti I. and 
Rameses II. can now be seen in the museum at Cairo. 
The faces are well preserved, in spite of the more than 
three thousand years which have passed since the 
decease of these monarchs. 

The departed souls — so the Egyptians believed — 
might sometimes come back to the graves where the 
bodies rested. To please the souls, great labour 
was spent in building tombs. The rocky hills west 
of the Nile, especially near the ancient Thebes, 
contain numberless tombs tunnelled deeply into the 
ground. The walls are generally covered with pic- 
tures and inscriptions, describing the life of the 



i6 ANCIENT HISTORY 

deceased. Through these pictures modern scholars 
have learned all about the manners and customs of 
the ancient Egyptians. The Pyramids also were the 
tombs of their builders. 

Glass, Paper. — Four thousand years ago the Egyptians 
knew all the secrets of glass-making. They excelled in 
the manufacture of imitation gems, an art which has not 
been equalled again until recently in Europe. The chief 
Egyptian writing material was made from a kind of grass 
which grew near the edge of the Nile. The Greeks had 
two names for this: 'hx^X. papyrus (hence English 'paper'), 
and secondly byblos (hence English Bible = book). Papyrus 
was expensive ; therefore many cheaper writing materials, 
such as wooden tablets, leather, or pieces of broken pottery, 
were also used. 

Egyptian Writing. — Egyptian writing, like the Chi- 
nese, began as picture-writing. The names of things 
were expressed by simple drawings of them. The 
Egyptians also resembled the Chinese in taking 
great pride in their writing, which was indeed quite 
beautiful. For inscriptions they continued the use of 
the old picture-writing, called Hieroglyphics {Jiiero^ 
sacred, ^/y////(r = carved writing). In documents and 
for business abbreviated forms gradually replaced the 
hieroglyphical, because they could be written much 
faster. 

Art and Science. — The Egyptians were very fond of 
painting and sculpture. In the dry climate of the country 
many works of art have been preserved to the present day ; 
especially paintings in tombs are often as fresh as if they 
had been recently finished by the artists. The conservatism 
of the Egyptians is best illustrated by their art : it had 
already reached perfection under the Pyramid Kings, and 
made almost no progress during the following two thousand 



EGYPT 17 

years. The scientific attainments of the Egyptians are 
commonly over-estimated. Their strongly religious habits 
and their superstitions prevented the rise of that spirit of 
inquiry which has given birth to modern science. They 
preferred to keep some useless practice, because it had been 
handed down from their ancestors, rather than to try to 
find out some better way. Hence medicine, arithmetic, 
astronomy, and other branches of learning stayed at the 
same low level since time out of memory. To dissect a 
human body was a dreadful crime. So Egyptian doctors 
never acquired a correct knowledge of anatomy. They 
could treat diseases only according to traditional instructions, 
and if their treatment was not successful, magic rites were 
employed. In astronomy they distinguished planets from 
fixed stars, divided the heavens into constellations, and 
determined approximately the length of the year. But their 
calendar was confused, and they had no proper chronology. 
For this reason it is impossible to find out the correct dates 
in Egyptian history. 

Position of Women. — Egyptian women had equal rights, 
before the law, with their husbands. They could own pro- 
perty in their own names, and care for it independently. A 
prince of the Fifth Dynasty said in a collection of moral 
precepts : " If thou art wise, then care well for thy home, 
love thy wife, honour her, care for her body, fulfil her wishes, 
as long as thou livest ; for she is a boon, which does honour 
to its master." In no other ancient country were women so 
well treated, nor was their claim to equal rights again fully 
revived until quite modern times in the leading ' Western 
countries. 

Egypt's Place in History. — Egypt shares with Babylonia 
the honour of having laid the foundations of Western 
civilization. It is difficult to tell precisely what are the laws 
and customs which have come down to modern times from 
the Egyptians, but it is certain that the Phoenicians and the 
Greeks learned a great deal through their intercourse with 
them. The Greeks long looked up to the Egyptian priests 

G.H. B 



i8 ANCIENT HISTORY 

as the masters of the deepest learning. It is no shame to 
the Egyptians that they could not keep pace with the young 
strength of Greece and Rome, but remained stationary and 
sank, to become the vassals of progressive states. Nations, 
like individuals, have certain natural endowments, the limits 
of which they cannot overstep. If they make good use of 
these endowments, and so add something to the general 
progress of the human race, they must be counted among 
the benefactors of the race. And the first in the list of 
those great peoples who have helped the world forward 
are the Egyptians. 



CHAPTER II 

BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA 

The Tigris and Euphrates Valley. — Flanked by the 
Syrian and Arabian deserts on the one hand, and by 
the Armenian hioh lands and the Zasfros mountains 
on the other, lies a vast river valley which bears 
many resemblances to Egypt. The climate is similar, 
except that the eastern valley has an annual rainy 
season. The soil is alluvial, and is also Hooded and 
enriched by the regular overflows of the Tigris and 
Euphrates rivers. Here also artificial irrig-ation had 
to prepare the way for agriculture. ' With canals and 
ditches properly controlled, the country was of un- 
rivalled fertility. Without them— as it now lies under 
Turkish misrule — it has sunk mostly into sandy waste 
and feverish swamps. 

In ancient times the lower part of this valley was 
called Babylonia, from the great city of Babylon. 
The name Chaldaea is often given to the same region, 
because the people of the first Babylonian empire are 
distinguished as Chaldaeans. The region lying above 
Babylon and between the rivers, mostly dry steppe, 
was called Mesopotamia (Afeso = middle, potam = 
river), which term is generally applied also to the 



20 ANCIENT HISTORY 

whole river valley. The upper country, stretching 
from the Tigris over the hills and into the mountains, 
was known as Assyria. 

The Three Great Monarchies. — Three ereat monarchies 
arose in this country. They were not, however, quite 
distinct, but had, in many ways, a continuous history. 
The rulers were first in the south, durinof the lonof 
period called the First Babylonian or Chaldaean 
empire. Then the Assyrians in the north-west became 
the ruling people, until Babylon again asserted its 
supremacy. 

The Old Babylonian Empire (about 4000-1300 e.g.). 
— The origin of Babylonian history is unknown. 
Uncertain information reaches back to about 4000 B.C. 
At that remote time Chaldaea was divided into a 
number of independent city states. Sargoii /., king 
of the city Agade, first consolidated the whole country 
under his rule, and extended his dominions to the 
Mediterranean. Hammurabi, king of all Babylonia 
about 2200 B.C., is famous on account of his 
laws. An almost complete code of these, inscribed 
on a large stone monument, has been found by 
modern excavators. The code of Hammurabi 
is the oldest document of its kind known, and 
is of extraordinary value for the study of early 
institutions. 

A few centuries later Babylonian emigrants settled 
in the hill-country known' as Assyria. For a long 
time they remained subject to the southern govern- 
ment. But gradually the Assyrians grew more in- 
dependent, until finally they in turn became masters 
of the Mesopotamian peoples. 



22 ANCIENT HISTORY 

The Assyrian Empire (1300 to 606). — The Assyrians 
were cruel and warlike. Their supremacy was based 
entirely on military strength. Their kings were 
.fighters, and spent most of their reigns in subduing 
or harassing the countries from Media to Egypt, and 
from the Red Sea to the Mediterranean. The 
Assyrian capital was the splendid and strong Nineveh 
on the Tigris. Like various other nations whose 
main pursuit was war, the Assyrians had little original 
culture. In religion they had their own god, Ashur, 
but otherwise their beliefs were about the same as 
those of the Babylonians. Their literature, art, and 
general knowledge were all borrowed from Chaldaean 
models. 

Sargon was the first of the Assyrian kings to 
make war on the Pharaoh. The Egyptian king 
was forced to pay tribute, as were also the Arabians, 
and even the people of Cyprus, one of the large 
islands in the Eastern Mediterranean. When the 
Jews revolted against Sargon's authority, he destroyed 
half of their country, and carried most of the people 
away as captives, assigning them new homes in 
Assyria. 

Under A shur-bani-pal Assyria reached the height 
of her power. The province of Egypt regained its 
independence under Psammetichus I., the founder 
of the twenty-sixth dynasty. But this local reverse 
of the Assyrian arms was more than made good 
in other regions. Practically all of Western Asia, 
from the plateau of Iran to the Red Sea and the 
Mediterranean, acknowledged Ashur-bani-pal as its 
overlord. 



BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA 



23 



The Sudden Downfall of Assyria. — The cruel oppres- 
sion of the Assyrian kings made their yoke doubly 
hateful to their numerous subjects. Revolts con- 
stantly broke out in all parts of the empire, and it 
only needed a brief reverse of fortune to bring the 
might of Assyria to ruin. Not long after Ashur- 
bani-pal's reign the governor of Babylon made an 
alliance with Cyaxares, the king of the Medes, with 
the object of overthrowing the Assyrian supremacy. 
Saracus, the last king of Assyria, was unable to with- 
stand his united enemies. In 606 Nineveh was taken 
by storm after a long siege. Saracus set fire to 
his palace, and burned himself and his family, rather 
than fall into the hands of the conquerors. With 
Nineveh the whole empire fell to pieces, and the 
very memory of it was soon lost from the minds of 
the people. For over two thousand years even the 
sites of Nineveh and other splendid cities were for- 
gotten, and next to nothing was known about their 
history. 

The New Babylonian Empire (606-538). — Although 
the New Babylonian empire lasted for less than a 
century, it left a deep impression 
on neiorhborino- nations throuo^h 
its power and wealth. The fame 
of later Babylon was established 
mainly by the energy of one king, 
Nebi'ichadnezzar. Durinof a remark- 
able reign of nearly sixty years, this 
monarch again united a great part 
of Western Asia under one rule. An Egyptian army 
led by the Pharaoh Necho was utterly defeated near 




Nebuchadnezzar. 



24 ANCIENT HISTORY 

the Euphrates river, Syria was occupied, and the 
Jewish king was forced to acknowledge the Baby- 
lonian suzerainty. The successor of Necho persuaded 
the Jews and the Phoenicians to join him in a renewed 
struggle against Babylonia. Jerusalem and Tyre, 
the capitals of the allies, suffered cruelly during the 
ensuing war. The Jewish king was killed, and most 
of his subjects were transplanted to Babylonia to 
prevent further revolts. Having also conquered the 
Phoenician cities, Nebuchadnezzar contented himself 
with humbling the pride of Egypt, which was now 
too weak to menace the peace of the Babylonian 
empire again. Though forced to march on many 
campaigns, Nebuchadnezzar took his chief delight in 
promoting the material welfare and the religion of 
his country. The inscriptions left by him show him 
to have been a truly paternal and pious prince. 

He says, for example : " Marduk Lord, the first of 
gods, thou mighty prince, thou hast created me, thou hast 
committed to me royal dominion over the multitude of 
the people, I love thy majesty as my precious life. Save 
thy city of Babylon. ... I am the king, the Restorer, 
who delights thy heart, the zealous ruler, the restorer of 
all thy cities." Temples which had lain in ruins for many 
hundred years were restored by Nebuchadnezzar, and new 
buildings in all parts of Babylonia attested the king's 
energy and piety. 

His main care was bestowed on the capital. 
Besides erecting fine temples and palaces, he girdled 
the city with vast fortifications. The outermost wall 
embraced a large arable district, which could largely 
support the city population during a long siege. 
Babylon became the greatest trading centre of the 



BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA 25 

ancient world. Its wealth led to a luxury and a 
licence which have given to the name Babylon the 
proverbial meaning" of an immoral city. 

The successors of Nebuchadnezzar were unworthy 
of their mighty ancestor. Their weak rule lost them 
the respect of the people, and when Cyrus the 
Great approached Babylon as a conqueror, its 
inhabitants gladly hailed him as their new sovereign 
(538). Thereafter the history of Mesopotamia was 
merged in that of the larger Persian empire. 

Babylonian Excavations. — The study of Babylonian 
antiquities, called Assyriology, is the most modern 
branch of historical learning. Except the information 
afforded in the Old Testament, and by some Greek 
historians, which does not give a correct idea of 
the Babylonians, nothing was known about these 
people until the middle of the nineteenth century. 
In 1842 the English scholar Layard began to 
search the mounds in Mesopotamia, which many 
travellers had mistaken for natural hills. His labours 
were at once richly rewarded. He uncovered the 
ruins of buildings, filled with sculptures and inscrip- 
tions, which had lain forgotten for over two thousand 
years. Since then numerous expeditions of scholars 
have been sent by various governments and universi- 
ties of Europe and America. They have unearthed 
the treasures of ancient art and literature, by means 
of which an invaluable chapter in the history of man 
has been written anew. 

Cuneiform Writing. — The Babylonian system of 
writing originated from picture writing. But, unlike 
the Egyptians, the Babylonians early abandoned the 



26 ANCIENT HISTORY 

clumsier system for a more practical form. The 
letters were engraved on stone or brick, or more 
commonly they were written on soft clay tablets, 
which were afterwards baked. The writing was 
done with a style ending in a little sharp triangle, 
and the letters all had the shape of a wedge. 
(Ci^nei-/o7^m = wedge-(orm.) The size and position 
of the wedge determined its meaning. To save 
space on the heavy material, the letters often were 
written very minutely, so that they could only be 
read with a magnifying glass. The cuneiform system 
of writing spread with Babylonian culture all over 



•^uiP iis.i'if a>-ia^ >'iii5 u 



=^1 lis itr 22^ 4S ^m Ffe >-^>- Liiilh h 



TIT*^\ 



Cuneiform Inscription. 



Western Asia. Cuneiform despatches to the Pharaoh 
have been found in Egypt, proving that Babylonian 
was the rulino- lano-ua^e of that time, somewhat as 
Enoflish is now the dominant lanouao-e. The Persians 
continued to use the cuneiform system until the fourth 
century B.C. 

Libraries. — The knowledge of reading and writing 
was quite general among the Babylonian people. 
Books were numerous. About 180,000 texts have 
been found so far, although only a small fraction 
of the ancient city sites has been explored. Regular 
libraries were established in many cities. The most 
famous is the Royal Library at Nineveh, which was 
discovered by Layard. The books were methodically 
catalogued, and the people were allowed to read them. 



BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA 27 

Religion. — The literature preserved on the day- 
books is mostly religious. Religion played almost 
as great a part in ancient Mesopotamia as it did in 
the Nile valley. While the separate districts had 
their local gods and superstitions, the gods of lead- 
ing cities, above all, those of Babylon, rose to national 
influence. Victorious kings made the spreading Of 
their religious cult their special care. Ashur, who 
has been mentioned as the principal deity of Nineveh, 
differed chiefly in name from Marduk, the city god 
of Babylon. These and lesser gods were all thought 
to be very human. They were born, lived, loved, 
fought, and even died, like the people on the earth. 
Their divinity was displayed chiefly by superior power 
and wisdom. Local gods were generally called Bel 
( = Lord), in addition to their other names. Thus 
Bel Nippur was the Lord of the city of Nippur. 
Later Bel became also the title of a separate divinity, 
whose worship centered in Babylon. The Phoe- 
nicians, whose religion was much like that of Babylon, 
called the Lord ' Baal.' Hence the term Baal wor- 
ship is applied to all the Semitic religions of Western 
Asia, which differed from the Jewish belief Through 
the Old Testament, Baal worship has come to have 
the contemptible meaning of a debased cult. 

Babylonian Law. — Next to religious texts, different 
kinds of legal documents form the greatest proportion 
of the cuneiform tablets. The Babylonians had a 
minutely developed system of law, and were very 
careful in its observance. No marriasre and no busi- 
ness transaction was valid without a written contract, 
sealed by both parties. The Code of Hammurabi 



28 ANCIENT HISTORY 

formed the groundwork of Babylonian legislation 
until the fall of the empire. The king claimed that 
its laws were dictated to him by a god. 

A few extracts from it will serve best to illustrate the 
condition of Babylonian society: "Clause 21. If any one 
has broken a hole in a house, he shall be killed and buried 
in front of that hole. Clause 55. If any one opens his 
irrigation canals to let in water, but is careless and the 
water floods the field of his neighbor, he shall measure out 
grain to the latter in proportion to the yield of the neigh- 
boring field. Clause 195. If a son has struck his father, 
his hands shall be cut off. Clause 196. If a person destroys 
the eye of a free-born man, his eye shall be destro3^ed. 
Clause 200. If a man knocks out the teeth of a man who is 
his equal, his teeth shall be knocked out." 

Architecture. — The Babylonian and Assyrian kings, 
like the Pharaohs, liked to show their power and 
resources by erecting great buildings. Their struc- 
tures excelled in size rather than in beauty and 
durability. The chief building material was sun-dried 
brick, which could not long resist the wash of the 
heavy annual rains. Most curious were the Tower 
Temples, which consisted of big solid terraces rising 
in pyramidal shape high above the plains. The 
Temple of the Seven Spheres, near Babylon, consisted 
of seven such terraces. Each was faced with glazed 
brick of a different color, and was sacred to one of 
the planets. The topmost and smallest one was 
covered with gold plates, and sacred to the sun. 
The royal palaces were very extensive, but simple 
in structure. Their walls were sumptuously decorated 
with paintings, and the gates were guarded by huge 
statues of winded bulls with human heads. None of 



BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA 29 

these buildings lasted very long. At present they 
look like hills of earth in the Mesopotamian plain, 
but below the protective covering the walls, pave- 
ments, sculptures, and inscriptions have remained 
untouched until the scientific inquirers of Europe 
brought them back to licrht. 

Science. — The Babylonians made some attempts at 
a methodical study of zoology, botany, and geography. 
These appear quite childish, however, beside the cor- 
responding modern sciences. In astronomy they were 
more successful. The Chaldaean astronomers in the 
reign of Sargon I. were already able to foretell 
eclipses. It is unlikely that astronomy was cultivated 
entirely for its own sake. The Babylonians had full 
faith in astrology, that old superstition, which credits 
the stars with the power to decide human destiny. 
Astronomical observations were conducted chiefly for 
the sake of telling fortunes through astrology. 



CHAPTER III 

THE JEWS AND THE PHOENICIANS 

A. THE JEWS 

The Religious Aspect of Jewish History. — Jewish history 
stands out as a most peculiar and unique chapter in the 
records of humanity. The Jews were an insignificant race, 
small in numbers and in political influence, and during their 
short nationa.1 career quite overshadowed by the mighty 
empires to the north and south of them. And yet they 
have directed to a large extent the religious and intellectual 
development of the world. The direct influence of Egypt 
and Babylonia on later western nations is trifling compared 
with the hold which Hebrew thought and teaching has over 
their minds. Jewish heroes and prophets are more familiar 
to the average Frenchman, Englishman, or German, than 
are the great men of his own country. Western art and 
literature are permeated with images and sayings taken from 
the Hebrew classics. Perhaps it is no exaggeration to 
claim that the Jews have as large a share in the shaping 
of European civilization as the Greeks and Romans together. 
This must seem almost inexplicable to the student, when 
he also learns that the Jews made no inventions nor dis- 
coveries ; that they were not gifted artists or philosophers 
like the Greeks, not great warriors or law-makers, like the 
Romans, not enterprising merchants, like their neighbors, the 
Phoenicians. The Jews owq their high place in history 
entirely to their pure devotion to one religious ideal, the 



THE JEWS AND THE PHOENICIANS 31 

worship of a single supreme God. Their inner develop- 
ment is bound up with the striving to attain and preserve a 
lofty monotheism, a religion which shone high above the 
polytheism of the surrounding peoples. Their religious 
enthusiasm did not take the form of missionary teaching 
among other people, but they jealously preserved their 
creed among themselves. This exclusiveness was reversed 
by the divinest of all the Jewish teachers, Jesus Christ. 
He added to the older doctrines of his forerunners the 
command : " Love your enemies, bless them that curse you, 
do good to them that hate you." He told his disciples to 
preach the new doctrines in all countries, and so Christianity 
was spread over Western Asia and the shores of the 
Mediterranean, until finally all Pagan creeds in the West 
were overthrown by the followers of Christ. Except for 
the teaching of Jesus Christ, Judaism would have remained 
a narrow though lofty doctrine, confined to a small and 
unfortunate race, and of interest only to the special religious 
inquirer. Christ's message of human brotherhood before 
God carried the religious traditions of the Jews into 
every household of the West. 

The Bible. — The limits of this book forbid more 
than a passing mention of the Jewish and Christian 
doctrines. But the student should bear in mind that 
a real understanding- of Western thouo-ht without an 
insight into these doctrines is impossible. An English- 
man might as well try to understand the customs and 
morals of China, without knowing anything about 
Confucius. 

The principal doctrines of Christianity are contained 
in the Bible, also called the Holy Scriptures. The 
older and larger part of the Scriptures, the 0/d 
Testament, embraces about three-fourths of the whole 
Bible. It Is divided Into thirty-nine books of different 



32 ANCIENT HISTORY 

length, and of widely different contents. The first 
one, Genesis, deals with the orio-in and early history 
of the Hebrew race, and is mostly mythical. The 
following books tell about the misfortunes of the Jews 
in Egypt, their miraculous delivery from bondage by 
the law-giver Moses, and their migration to the land 
promised by the God Yahveh.^ They also contain 
detailed moral and relio-ious laws and reo^ulations. 
After these Books of Moses come several books which 
are mainly historical. The book of Psalms contains 
songs in praise of God, that of Proverbs is a collection 
of wise and popular sayings. Most of the remaining 
books are ascribed to oreat relisfious reformers and 
teachers, called the ' Prophets, ' of whom Isaiah 
was the most notable. The Old Testament was 
written in the Hebrew lanofuaoe. It was not col- 
lected at one time, but grew together gradually out 
of elements differing widely in authorship. The 
Jews believed the whole Old Testament to be the 
word of God, inspired by Him directly in His holy 
prophets. 

The New Testament was written in Greek some time 
after the death of Christ. It does not form part of 
the Jewish Scriptures, but is accepted only by the 
Christians. Its principal contents are : First, the four 
Gospels, or histories of Christ, which record also his 
teaching ; secondly, the ' Epistles ' of the apostle ^ 
Paul to various Christian communities. In these 

' This is the Hebrew name ; in English it is rendered as 'Jehovah.' 

"'A-pos'tle' originally meant a 'messenger.' The twelve disciples of 
Christ were called the apostles, and the same title was given to other 
famous teachers of early Christianity. 



THE JEWS AND THE PHOENICIANS 33 

letters the Christian doctrines were further developed 
and explained. 

The Country of the Jews lies in the western part of 
Syria, As a whole it is called Palestine or ' Holy- 
Land,' but formerly the northern part was distinguished 
as Is7^ael, with the capital Samaria, and the southern 
as Jiidah, with the capital Jerusalem. Most of 
Palestine is arid, and only fit for pasture. Parallel 
with the coast run two mountain ranges, the Lebanon 
and Antilebanon, which in ancient times were covered 
with valuable timber. The Jordan river runs through 
the fruitful valley between these mountains into the 
Dead Sea, a strongly saline lake lying 1 300 feet below 
ocean level. The original inhabitants of this country 
were the Canaanites, and the Holy Land is often 
referred to by its older name Canaan. 

The Early History of the Jews cannot be exactly 
determined, and has led to many controversies among 
Western scholars. Formerly the stories of Genesis 
and Exodus, the first two books of the Bible, were 
generally accepted as exact truth. According to them 
the founder of the race was Abraham, who wandered 
from Chaldaea to Syria. Joseph, one of his descend- 
ants, rose to be a leading official at the Egyptian 
court, and helped the Jews to settle in Egypt. Later 
Pharaohs oppressed them, until they were delivered 
by the law-giver Moses, who led them toward Canaan. 
After many miracles, and after having wandered for 
forty years in the desert, the ' children of Israel ' finally 
began the actual conquest of Canaan. Every detail 
of this wonderful story is implanted in the memories of 
Western school children. Modern historical criticism 

G.H. c 



34 ANCIENT HISTORY 

must reject most of it as mythical. Neither Baby- 
lonian nor Egyptian inscriptions have so far furnished 
the contemporary evidence needed to sift fact from 
fable. 

Two !Points of View. — Besides the historical point of view, 
briefly indicated above, there is the theological point of view, 
the followers of which are perhaps still more numerous. 
lyTheos = (jodi\ hence theology = study of religion.) Conser- 
vative theologians claim that every word of the Bible must 
be believed as divine truth, and that doubt is wrong. Liberal 
theologians give natural explanations for the miracles, but 
otherwise uphold the reliability of the first Books of Moses. A 
full agreement between historians and theologians has not yet 
been found ; hence the student may hear or read statements 
opposed to the critical conclusion of the preceding paragraph. 

National History. — The conquest of Canaan was 
followed by a period of inner dissension, until Saul^ 
during- the eleventh century B.C., succeeded in uniting 
the tribes into one kingdom. The national unity did 
not last lone. King- David for a while lifted his 
people to the first place in Syria, but under his son 
Solomon signs of decay already were visible. Solomon 
(about looo B.C.) was famous for the splendour of his 
court and for his wisdom. The saying, 'As wise as 
Solomon,' is still current. Even at this time the 
Hebrew kingdom was very small. On the east were 
hostile Syrian tribes, while the sea-coast was under 
Phoenician control. The royal palace of Solomon and 
the famous temple at Jerusalem were largely built by 
Phoenician artisans. Soon after the death of the wise 
king, hostile parties split the country into two parts, 
henceforth distinguished as the kingdoms of Israel 
and of Judah. The Assyrian Sargon destroyed 



THE JEWS AND THE PHOENICIANS 35 

Samaria, the capital of Israel, in 722. Most of the 
population was deported, and its place taken by 
foreign colonists. The kingdom of Judah, though in 
constant danger from Assyrians and Egyptians, con- 
tinued to enjoy a national existence until 586 B.C., 
when Nebuchadnezzar led the people off into Baby- 
lonian captivity. Since then Palestine has always 
been a dependency or province of the successive 
powers ruling over Western Asia. 

Scattering of the Jews. — Cyrus the Great, the 
founder of the Persian empire, allowed the exiled 
Jews to return home, and to rebuild their national 
temple in Jerusalem. Under the Roman dominion, 
during the first and second century after Christ, the 
Jews rose in obstinate revolt against the Roman 
governors. The Romans had not been cruel to them, 
but wished them, like all other Roman subjects, to 
conform to the state religion. This the Jews refused 
to do, as they could not, according to their faith, 
worship any other god besides their own. Thus the 
religious enthusiasm of the people brought about their 
destruction. Jerusalem was twice destroyed, and the 
Jews were scattered all over the Western World. 
They have never again possessed any country of 
their own, but lived as strangers in all countries. In 
modern times most states have orranted to them full 
rights of citizenship. 

B. THE PHOENICIANS 

The Land and the People. — Phoenicia was the ancient 
name of a coast strip of Syria about two hundred 
miles in length, and from three to seventeen miles in 



36 ANCIENT HISTORY 

width. The little country was most favourably 
situated between the Lebanon mountains and the 
Mediterranean. The soil was of great fertility, but 
could of course nourish only a small population on 
its limited area. The coast was rocky and broken, 
affording- by its many bays and islands numerous safe 
harbours. To these local advantages for ocean trade 
was added the central position of the country between 
Egypt and Mesopotamia, which made Phoenicia the 
natural emporium^ for exchanges between those 
ancient seats of civilization. 

The Phoenicians made the fullest use of their oppor- 
tunities since the earliest recorded times. They were 
the famous trading nation of antiquity. Commerce 
and industry were their sole aim and pursuit. In all 
other matters they were content to copy their neigh- 
bors. Being of Semitic race, they had a language 
similar to the Babylonian. From the Babylonians 
also they took over their religion and most of their 
culture, in so far as it was not based on Egyptian 
models. When the Jews conquered Palestine, the 
Phoenicians were already in possession of the coast, 
and were called Canaanites by the former. 

Phoenician History. — The Phoenicians never formed 
a single nation. Each city with its adjoining farm 
lands constituted a little state for itself. The most 
powerful city was at times recognized as ruling over 
all the others, without, however, interfering in their 
internal affairs. This leadership fell first to Sidon, 
and later to Tyi^e. The Phoenicians had no interest 

^ Em-por-ium, a town with much commerce ; the commercial centre 
of a country. 



THE JEWS AND THE PHOENICIANS 37 

in history, and left no literature or other historic 
records. What little is known about them is gleaned 
from the records of the various nations which came in 
contact with them. The Old Testament mentions 
Hiram, king of Tyre, who made a league with 
Solomon, and sent him Phoenician artisans and 
materials for constructing the temple in Jerusalem. 
The Phoenicians did not value political independence, 
but submitted quite readily to foreign masters, pro- 
vided that their trade was not injured. Hence 
Egyptian, Assyrian, and Babylonian records refer to 
them as tributaries of these respective powers at 
different times. Later they fell under Persian, then 
under Greek, and finally under Roman authority. 
Their sea power had been almost destroyed before 
the days of Alexander the Great. 

Phoenician Trade. — The Phoenician merchants pene- 
trated by sea and land to all parts of the Western 
world, where there was any profit to be made. Their 
caravans went to Assyria, Arabia, and Egypt. They 
traded with India in the East, with Spain, Britain, 
and even the Baltic coast in the West. Wherever 
they went, they established trading posts for local 
centres of exchano-e. As their vessels were small, 
they also needed many harbors for refuge and rest 
on distant voyages. Cyprus, the Black Sea coast, 
Malta, Sicily, and Spain were all occupied before 
1000 B.C. The Phoenicians . never tried to conquer 
these places, but only settled for trade. When they 
engaged in war, it was for the protection of commerce. 
Silver from Spain, tin from Britain, gold, ivory, and 
spices from the East, various manufactures from 



38 ANCIENT HISTORY 

Egypt and Babylon, were their principal staples. 
Most profitable of all was the slave trade. In early 
times many slaves were stolen by piracy and kid- 
napping. Later the Phoenician slave dealers followed 
in the train of Assyrian or Babylonian armies, and 
bought for next to nothing the captives, whom they 
sold at hioh fio-ures on the slave markets. 

o o 

The Phoenicians as Carriers of Civilization. — The 
great historic merit of the Phoenicians lies in this, 
that they carried with their wares the arts and inven- 
tions of Egypt and Mesopotamia. While selling the 
products of those countries in Greece and Italy, they 
could not help teaching the buyers many new ideas 
at the same time. Most valuable was their dissemi- 
nation of alphabetical writing. It is not yet certain 
whether the Phoenicians borrowed the alphabet from 
Egypt or from Babylonia. In any case, they used it 
for their accounts, and so taught it to the Greeks. 
Through the latter it has been handed on, with slight 
changes, to the later European countries. 



CHAPTER IV 
THE PERSIANS 

The Home of the Persians is the high table-land 
of Iran. In prehistoric times they had migrated 
from some other part of Eurasia, where they had 
been connected with tribes of the same Aryan racQ 
and language. The approximate date of their con- 
quest of Iran cannot be determined. They arrived 
there as nomads, and had not yet assumed the habits 
of a long settled race, when they suddenly rose to 
be the rulers of Western Asia. The centre of the 
Iranian table-land is an immense salty desert, unfit 
to support any kind of life. On all sides of the plateau 
are wild mountain ranges, interspersed with dry 
steppes and fruitful valleys. There lived the first 
Aryans who founded an empire in the West, the 
people who produced Zoroaster and Cyrus the Great. 

Zoroaster. — That the early Persians were a people 
of superior character, is proved by the rise among 
them of Zoroastrianism. This system of religion and 
philosophy is ascribed to the sage Zoroaster, who 
lived about looo B.C. He saw all about him the 
striking contrast between good and evil things : 
between the blooming valleys and the deadly desert, 



THE PERSIANS 43 

between health and disease, between virtue and vice, 
between orderly government and the anarchy of 
ravaoine nomads. These observations led him to 
teach that the world was governed by two forces. 
The good god of light he called Ormzizd, and the 
evil eod of darkness Akriman. The latter created 
all evil passions, poisonous animals, and the various 
destructive forces of nature, and fought with them 
against the good creations of Ormuzd. The duty 
of every man was to aid in the overthrow of 
the evil god by practising virtue, and by laboring 
in every possible way to promote the welfare of man- 
kind. Agriculture was sacred, because every foot of 
land reclaimed from wilderness extended the dominion 
of Ormuzd. After a lonor struo-o-le, so Zoroaster 
taught, evil would be finally overthrown, and good 
would rule over all the world. 

Much of this system had grown up among the 
Persians before Zoroaster, but he reformed and 
expanded the old teachings, somewhat as Confucius 
based his doctrines on the sayings of the ancient 
sages. The Persians kept Zoroastrianism as their 
religion until the middle of the seventh century a.d., 
when it was driven out by the Mohammedans. The 
adherents of Zoroaster, who fled before the Moham- 
medans to India, and there kept the faith almost 
unchanged to the present day, are called Parsees. 

Cyrus the Great. — During the later years of the 
Assyrian empire (before 600 B.C.) the Medes, under 
King Cyaxares, were masters in Iran, and the Per- 
sians were their chief vassals. An alliance with 
Babylonia, and the resulting destruction of Nineveh, 



42 ANCIENT HISTORY 

divided the control of Western Asia between the 
Medes and the Babylonians. Only the western half 
of Asia Minor formed the independent kingdom of 
Lydia. This state was rapidly growing in wealth and 
power at the same time, while the Median empire 
was expanding over Iran, and while Nebuchadnezzar 
was seizing the rest of Western Asia. Lydia reached 
the height of its prosperity under Croesus, a king of 
such fabulous wealth that his name still stands as 
a synonym for an immensely rich man. His capital 
was Sardis, the principal city in Asia Minor. Among 
his subjects were also the Greeks settled along the 
Aegaean coast of Asia Minor. When Lydia was 
annexed to the Persian empire, these Greeks became 
Persian subjects, an event which proved to be of 
momentous consequence for both parties. 

Only fifty years after the fall of Nineveh, the 
dominion of the Medes was suddenly overthrown 
by the Persian king Cyrtcs. Having humbled the 
Median king, this great general quickly brought the 
neighboring countries under Persian authority, and 
frightened the rulers of Lydia and Babylonia by his 
conquests. The boundary between Lydia and the 
new Persian dominions was formed by the river Halys, 
which flows from the middle of Asia Minor into the 
Black Sea. Croesus struck the first blow in a struggle 
which seemed inevitable, by leading an army over 
the Halys. But the superior generalship of Cyrus 
quickly ended the campaign. Lydia was incorporated 
in the Persian empire, and Sardis henceforth was the 
seat of a Persian governor. At the close of Baby- 
lonian history it has already been mentioned that 



THE PERSIANS 43 

Mesopotamia also fell under the rule of Cyrus. In 
the East his conquests included modern Afghanistan. 

Cyrus well deserved to be called the "Great." His 
victories were not stained by Assyrian cruelty. He 
was a kind and just ruler. He allowed the Jews to 
return to their home country, and to conduct religious 
services in their restored temple at Jerusalem. All 
accounts agree in regarding him as the best and most 
fatherly of the many despotic kings who have reigned 
over Western Asia. 

Darius I. — After the death of Cyrus the Great, 
the Persian empire continued for three hundred 
years, until 330 B.C. It produced one more truly 
great man, Darms /., who was king during forty 
years before and after 500 B.C. When Darius 
ascended the throne, the vast empire was shaken 
by rebellions in every quarter. These the king 
quelled promptly and energetically. Then he led 
an army into India, and made a Persian province 
of the Punjab. Some years later he crossed the 
Hellespont and the lower Danube, and penetrated 
far into what is now Southern Russia. There lived 
the nomadic Scythians, fierce barbarians, who had 
long been a terror to the countries south of them 
by their cruel invasions. Though Darius could not 
force these horsemen to battle, because they kept 
retreating before him, he yet inspired them with a 
fear of Persian power. On the return march he 
left a general in Europe, who subjected Thrace, s. 
country not far north of Greece. 

Persian Government, — Darius is best known for 
his Organization of the Persian Government. Until 



44 ANCIENT HISTORY 

his time, conquered countries kept their own local 
administration, and were only watched by garrisons 
of soldiers. Whenever a governor of a province 
felt strong enough, he would stop sending tribute, 
and declare himself independent. Hence arose the 
numerous rebellions and the sudden changes of 
government. A strong and ready army was the 
only guarantee of permanent rule. Darius ended 
this state of disorder by some wise innovations. 
He appointed three high officials for every pro- 
vince : a general, a governor, called satrap, and a 
secretary. All three were personally responsible 
to the king. The general commanded the provincial 
forces, but depended on the satrap for the pay of 
the soldiers. The secretary was also a kind of spy, 
who reported to the Great King at once if his col- 
leagues seemed to plan any treachery. On receipt 
of an order from the king, they could be put to 
death without trial. A province was called a 
satrapyy and the form of government is referred to 
as satrapal. 

The system was a step forward, but still very 
faulty, if compared with modern government. There 
was no proper taxation. Each satrap sent large 
annual payments in money or in kind {i.e. horses, 
catde, cereals, etc.) to the Great King. The heavy 
expenses of the three high officers and their retinues 
were also pressed out of the people of the province. 
No official had any salary, but was assigned some 
district or city from which he could " squeeze " his 
own revenue. 

The two and a half centuries following the death 



THE PERSIANS 45 

of Darius proved the value of his reforms. His 
successors grew steadily weaker and lazier through 
luxury. The kings were regarded like gods, and no 
one was given access to their persons except by 
permission of officers called their 'eyes and ears.' 
The most degenerating institution was the royal 
harem. It brouo-ht eunuchs and favorite wives 

o 

into undue power, so that important state affairs 
were decided by petty palace intrigues. The later 
kings, who preferred the pleasures of their palace 
to the arduous duties of efficient government, gradu- 
ally became the tools of court favorites. Before 
Darius, such a condition would have led to a prompt 
fall of the empire. But his system held the wide 
realm together, long after it had become corrupt 
in all its members. Alexander the Great found 
the seemingly mighty Persia an easy prey for his 
small Greek army. 



CHAPTER V 

THE ANCIENT ORIENTAL COUNTRIES 

Introduction. — The ancient Western world was grouped 
around the Mediterranean. Whatever Africa and Europe 
boasted of civiHzation was to be found within easy reach 
of that sea. A hnk with the East was afforded by the 
countries which enjoyed sea or land communication with 
India, viz. by Egypt, Phoenicia, the Mesopotamian countries, 
and Persia. The bold traders who crossed the Indian 
Ocean in quest of silk stuffs, spices, ivory, and other 
eastern merchandize, also brought back glowing tales of 
Indian riches. Compared with later times, however, the 
Indian trade was insignificant, and until the fourth century 
before Christ India remained a fabulous country to most of 
the Mediterranean peoples. Ancient Indian history took a 
course apart from that of the West. India was a world apart, 
shut off both from its western and its eastern neighbors by 
huge mountain barriers and by dangerous seas. 

The countries east of India remained quite unknown 
to the ancient West until the time of the Roman Empire. 
For travellers who could barely brave the journey to 
India, the far greater distances and dangers of a voyage 
to China were insurmountable. The civilization radiating 
out from the basin of the Huang Ho (Yellow River) had 
for centuries taken root throughout eastern Asia, before 
even an echo of Greece or Rome reached China. Even 
between India and China there was little intercourse. 



THE ANCIENT ORIENTAL COUNTRIES 47 

In ancient times, therefore, history ran in three sepa- 
rate channels : the Mediterranean, the Indian, and the 
Far Eastern. The narrative in this book will show how 
the three streams gradually approached one another until 
they united in modern times into the vast current of 
the world's history. 

The unification of the modern world is almost entirely 
the work of the Mediterranean and Germanic races. To 
their history the present book must be chiefly devoted, 
while the eastern peoples can be included only in so far 
as is indispensable for an understanding of the modern 
world. 

I. INDIA. 

Indian Geography cannot be treated here, but should 
be reviewed by every student who wishes to gain 
an elementary grasp of the country's history. The 
chief determining factors for the history of the 
people are : 

(i) The barrier of the Himalaya Mountains and 
their outrunners. Passes in the north-east and north- 
west have allowed invaders to descend on the country. 
Notably through the Khaibar Pass and other routes 
from Afghanistan into the Punjab hosts of Aryans, 
Turks, and Mongols have at various times overrun 
the Indian plains. 

(2) The fertile plain watered by the Indus and 
its tributaries on the western, the Ganges on the 
northern and eastern side of the country. Here 
have always lain the wonderful cities which were 
the fountain heads of civilization amid a teemine 
farming population. 

(3) The three-cornered table-land known as the 
Deccan, comprising most of the southern peninsula. 



48 ANCIENT HISTORY 

Its mountains have protected the ancient native 
population against invading enemies. 

(4) The Hot Climate. — The tropical or subtropical 
heat reiofnino- in most of India has tended to enervate 
the inhabitants. Invadino- races coming; from the 
cooler mountain regions lost their original fighting 
qualities in the hothouse air of the plains. Hence 
they had less power of resistance against fresh enemies 
cominsf centuries later. 

The Original Inhabitants of India. — In prehistoric 
times struggles for the soil of India went on between 
various dark-skinned races. Many of them were 
naked savages who lived as hunters in the forests. 
Others had made some advance toward civilization, 
practised agriculture and built walled cities. Remnants 
of these ancient races are still found in the remoter 
mountain valleys of the Deccan and of the Himalayas. 
So numerous, in fact, are the tribes encountered in 
India that it has aptly been called a huge ethnological 
museum. 

A scientific study of their languages has proved them to 
belong to three stocks. First, the Tibeto-Burman tribes are 
found along the slopes of the Himalayas. Secondly, the 
Kolarians live chiefly in the mountains of the north-eastern 
Deccan. Thirdly, the Dravidians possess the southern half 
of the Deccan. 

The Aryan Conquest of India. — At some period before 
2000 B.C. white-skinned invaders from the north-west 
entered the Punjab, and gradually made themselves 
masters of all Northern India. These Aryans came 
from the same old home, somewhere in Western Asia 
or in Europe, whence the ancestors of the Greeks, 



THE ANCIENT ORIENTAL COUNTRIES 49 

Romans, and Teutons had started on their careers 
of conquest. They had the same large eyes and 
prominent noses as their Western cousins. Even 
to-day the Aryan Hindus, though browned by many 
centuries of exposure to a burning sun, still have 
the features of Western Europeans rather than of 
Mongolians or of neoroid races. 

Common Origin of European and Indian Languages and 
Religions. — The kinship of Indians and Europeans is also 
traceable in their literature and religion. Many common 
words are almost identical in Latin or German on the one 
hand, and in Indian speech on the other. Sanskrit, the 
ancient literary language of the Indian Aryans, bears a close 
resemblance to the chief European languages. The gods 
worshipped by the early Indians differed little from the 
divinities of the Greeks and Romans. In India and on the 
Mediterranean alike the original religion was a nature 
worship, in which the heaven, the sea, the clouds, the fire, 
and other natural phenomena were adored as personal 
beings. The Sanskrit word ' deva ' (the shining one), mean- 
ing a god, is found again in the Latin ' deus ' (god) and in 
the English ' Divin-ity.' 

The Vedas. — Our knowledge of the prehistoric Aryans 
is based on a collection of religious and legendary 
poems called the Vedas. The oldest of these, the 
Rig-Veda, was composed about 1400 b.c, while the 
Aryans were still fighting with the dark-skinned 
aborigines. Aside from their literary beauty, the 
Vedas reveal much about the language, the religion, 
the customs, and laws of the ancient Indians. 

Rise of the Four Castes. — Some centuries after the 
Aryan conquest there arose that caste system which 
has characterized India to the present day. The 

G.H. D- 



50 ANCIENT HISTORY 

families who knew all the Vedic hymns by heart 
became a hereditary priestly class, known as the 
Brahmans. Those who exchanged the once honor- 
able work of farming for a purely military life formed 
the warrior caste, called Rajputs or Kshattrias. The 
free Aryan farmers formed a third caste by the name 
of Vaisyas, while the subject non-Aryan tribes, obliged 
to work as serfs for the ruling race, were the despised 
caste of the Sudras. 

The Brahmans. — From Vedic times until the present 
day the Brahmans have stood at the head of Indian 
society as its intellectual and spiritual leaders. A 
wonderful treasury of literature, philosophy, and 
religion has been given by them to India, and has 
from there influenced the religions of half the world. 

The Brahmans at an early time reached a level of 
intelligence at which they could no longer believe in 
the many gods of the Vedic nature worship. Long 
thought convinced them that there was only one god- 
head, the creator of all things seen in this world. 
They did not conceive the divinity as a personal 
being, but rather as a principle, or first cause, which 
could be seen at work everywhere in the universe. 
This principle they called Brahma, whence their 
relio'ion bears the name Brahmanism. Its believers 
had a very high standard of moral conduct. For the 
mass of the common people Brahmanism was too 
difficult to understand, and the priests did not disturb 
the popular belief in many gods. 

Life of Buddha.— During the sixth century before 
Christ a number of religious reformers tried to im- 
prove Brahmanism. The most successful of all these 



THE ANCIENT ORIENTAL COUNTRIES 51 

teachers was Gmitama Bttddha, the founder of 
Buddhism. This reHgion flourished in India side by 
side with the older Brahmanism for over a thousand 
years. Although most of India was lost to it about a 
thousand years ago, Buddhism still has more believers 
than any other religion in the world. 

Gautama was the only son of the king ruling over 
the state of Kapilavastu. He was thoughtfully in- 
clined from boyhood, but proved himself a brave 
warrior in his youth. As a man of thirty he gave 
up all the splendors and enjoyments of his princely 
position, left his wife and son, and hid as a poor 
begging monk in a wild cave. During six years of 
solitude in the forest he sought for a doctrine which 
could bring happiness to mankind. Like most of the 
earnest Brahman hermits, he tried to gain religious 
merit by fasting and by undergoing bodily discomfort 
and pain. At last he found the right way, and went 
forth to teach his new faith. Thereafter he was called 
Buddha, meaning 'The Enlightened.' He preached 
to the people in many parts of India until his eightieth 
year. When he again entered his fathers royal 
palace, he came as a wandering preacher in faded 
robes, with a begging bowl in his hand. His own 
wife became one of the first Buddhist nuns. He is 
said to have died under a fig tree — the spot is still 
sacred to all Buddhists — in the year 543 b.c. 

Buddha's Doctrine. — Like his predecessors, Buddha 
taught that human life must be full of sorrow and 
pain, and that we should strive to get ri.d of its 
miseries. But he taught a new way of gaining happi- 
ness. He discouraged the practice of self-torture 



52 ANCIENT HISTORY 

followed by the Brahman hermits. He told his 
followers that perfection could be gained by leading 
a good life, rather than by sacrifices to the gods. 
His doctrine was above all one of love and mercy. 
The poor Sudras, the outcasts who were excluded 
from the benefits of Brahmanism, were welcomed by 
Buddha with the same loving kindness as the proud 
Brahmans. 

The hia-hest state man can reach, according- to 
Buddha, is one of perfect rest. It can be attained 
only if the soul leaves the earth and all its cares 
behind, and grows one with the great soul of the 
universe. This state of eternal rest or unconscious- 
ness is called Nirvana. Like many other high 
religious conceptions, it cannot be clearly explained, 
beino- more a matter of feelino- than of thouo-ht. The 
three great duties of every person who hopes to attain 
Nirvana are : control over self, kindness to other men, 
and reverence for the life of all living creatures. 
Buddhism has no personal God who rules the world, 
and rewards and punishes men, like the God of the 
Christians or Mohammedans, 

The Spread of Buddhism. — The religion of Buddha 
was soon corrupted by all sorts of ceremonies and 
even idolatries which appealed to the ignorant masses, 
for whom the pure doctrine was too lofty. About 
250 B.C. the Indian king Asoka called together a 
great Council for the reform of the faith. The tenets 
of Asoka, often called Southern Buddhism, are still 
observed by the inhabitants of Ceylon and Burma. 

Another famous council was held about 40 a.d. by 
the Indian king Kanishka, who belonged to a dynasty 



THE ANCIENT ORIENTAL COUNTRIES 53 

of Tibetan origin. Kanishka's revision of the sacred 
books forms the Northern Canon of Buddhism. 
A.D, 65 the Chinese emperor Ming-ti sent ambas- 
sadors to India to inquire into the Buddhist faith. 
They returned with some priests, under whose guid- 
ance the new religion was established in the capital. 
Since the rule of the Yuan dynasty, in the thirteenth 
century, Chinese Buddhism has split into two sects, 
the worshippers of /^9 ( = Buddha) and the Lamaists. 
Lamaism has its home in Tibet, where the Buddhist 
faith was introduced during the seventh century. It 
has a well-organized Church under the headship of 
the Dalai Lama in Lassa, a spiritual ruler whose 
office is closely analogous to that of the Pope in 
Rome. The ceremonies of Lamaism, which also 
resemble those of the Roman Church, have nothing 
to do with the teaching of Buddha, but are of later 
growth. The Mongol tribes of Inner Asia are zealous 
supporters of Lamaism. 

Their conversion has had far-reaching political conse- 
quences, in that it has softened their former warHke spirit. 
So long as nearly every Mongol family supports in idleness 
a Lama monk, no modern Jengis Khan is likely to threaten 
the world. From China Buddhism also spread to Korea, 
and, in the sixth century A.D., to Japan. 

The Greeks in India (327 to 161 b.c). — In 327 b.c. 
Alexander the Great marched into India (see ch. x.). 
He made alliances with native princes, founded cities, 
and left Greek garrisons. Some of Alexander's suc- 
cessors kept up relations with Indian rulers, but the 
Greek influence was not strons: enoutrh to leave a 
permanent mark on the country. 



54 , ANCIENT HISTORY 

II. CHINA. 

Chinese Geography shows such a variety of soil and 
climate, that even the most rudimentary outline of it 
would far exceed the limits of this book. China 
enjoys the finest natural waterways in the world, great 
arteries of trade, which have been extended by canals. 
The easy interchange of products between the north 
and the south on the one hand, and between the coast 
provinces and the interior on the other, made China 
practically a self-sufficing country. She had little 
need of foreig-n o-oods. But the main reason for 
China's isolation lay in the high mountain ranges and 
vast deserts which fence off her western and northern 
frontiers. The long coast line, so open to attack 
from modern fleets, had no enemies to fear before 
the Portuguese found the sea way to the Far East. 

To sum up : the geographical conditions of China 
were such as, first, to favor the growth of a great 
civilized nation, and secondly, to isolate that nation 
from other civilized peoples living farther west. 

The Chinese People lived in the middle valley of 
the Yellow River nearly five thousand years ago. 
Whether they were aborigines or invaders from the 
north-west is uncertain, though the former theory is 
probably correct. By force of arms, and through 
their superiority in all the arts of peace, the Chinese 
gradually annexed all the territories occupied by the 
surrounding native races. The latter, related by race 
to the Chinese, were finally absorbed by inter- 
marriage. The similarity of the conquering and the 
conquered races explains why the present population 



56 ANCIENT HISTORY 

of China is so remarkably uniform in appearance 
throughout that vast empire. In this respect, China 
is the exact opposite of India, and several small 
European states can show a greater diversity of 
population than the Middle Kingdom, which counts 
400 million inhabitants, or about the same number 
as all Europe. 

The Earliest History of China is preceded by a mythical 
and a half-mythical period, when rulers of heroic 
strength and wonderful virtue are said to have per- 
formed miraculous labors for the benefit of mankind. 
Reliable historical information can be extracted from 
the annals of the Shu-ckino- reachino- back to 
2300 B.C. At that period China was a feudal state 
occupying approximately the territory of present 
China north of the Yangtse river. A well-organized 
government and an extensive knowledge of agricul- 
ture, silk growing, and mining, prove that many 
centuries of development must already have been 
passed. 

The feudal system was perfected by Wtt TVajig, 
the founder of the CAow Dynasty (b.c. 1122-249). 
Wu Wanof is still famous through his work for the 
welfare of the people. He founded schools through- 
out his dominions, and established infirmaries for the 
aged, proofs of a humane statesmanship which cannot 
at this early period be paralleled in any other part 
of the world. But the independent authority given 
to the great feudal lords tended to make them dis- 
obedient to their royal master. Like the later kings 
of mediaeval Germany, the rulers of the Chow 
Dynasty gradually lost all control over the turbulent 



THE ANCIENT ORIENTAL COUNTRIES 57 

nobility, and the country was thrown into a chronic 
state of civil war. 

Confucius. — The troubles springing from internal 
misrule have often led to the rise of reformers who 
tried by their teaching to bring back better times. 
Such a reformer was Confucius (Kung Fu-tze). He 
was born in the year 551 B.C., in the feudal state 
of Lu, in the present province of Shantung. He 
says himself that at fifteen his mind was set on learn- 
ing, and at thirty he stood firm in his convictions. 
In his twenty-second year he began his career as a 
teacher. In 501 the Duke of Lu made Confucius 
governor of a town, and soon afterwards the whole 
government of Lu was conducted for three months 
according to his counsel. Of this period it is said : 
" Dishonesty and dissoluteness were ashamed and hid 
their heads. Loyalty and good faith became the 
characteristics of men, and chastity and docility those 
of the women." A neighboring ruler, jealous of the 
prosperity of Lu, corrupted the duke by a present 
of beautiful courtesans and fine horses. The counsels 
of Confucius were no longer wanted, and he went 
away to wander about in many states, followed 
everywhere by a band of devoted disciples. When 
he was about sixty-five, he once described himself by 
saying : "I am a man who in his eager pursuit of 
knowledge forgets his food, and in the joy of its 
attainment forgets his sorrows, and who does not 
perceive that old age is coming on." The last years 
of the sage were spent in his native state of Lu, in 
study and literary labors. The CJiun Cliiu (Spring and 
Autumn Annals), the only classic written by himself, 



58 ANCIENT HISTORY 

which was a history of Lu from 722-481 B.C., was pro- 
bably written at this time. The Master died in 479 B.C. 

Confucius was, as he said, ' a transmitter and not a 
maker.' He sought to guide his fellow-men by holding 
up to them the wisdom and the virtue of the ancients. 
His teaching was purely ethical and practical, confined 
to the daily life of man as a member of the state and 
of the family. He spoke little of God, and he avoided 
talking about the supernatural. For this reason it is 
often said that he cannot be called a religious teacher, 
but only a moral philosopher, and that Confucianism is 
a system of morality rather than a religion. 

Influence of Confucianism. — Among the virtues 
demanded by the Confucian ethics, propriety, rever- 
ence for tradition, and filial piety are the most 
important. These precepts have moulded Chinese 
society for more than two thousand years. No 
other reformer has held such absolute sway over a 
great part of humanity for such a long period. To 
the influence of Confucius must be ascribed the 
unparalleled length of existence enjoyed by the 
Chinese state. Pure family relations, dutiful be- 
havior of children towards parents, and respect for 
authority, have all worked together to preserve the 
ancient Chinese polity. On the other hand, the dis- 
like of innovations prevented progress, so that the 
state of Chinese society described by Arabian 
travellers a thousand years ago is almost identical 
with its present condition. 

Chinese Literature after Confucius. — Among the fol- 
lowers of Confucius the most renowned is Mencius 
(Meng-tze), a moral philosopher who lived from 
372 to 289 B.C. His writings rank next to those 



THE ANCIENT ORIENTAL COUNTRIES 59 

of the Great Sage among the Classics on which 
Chinese education is based. 

Excepting Buddhistic influences from India, Chinese 
literature is a purely native product. It is by far 
the most voluminous of all oriental literatures, being 
especially rich and reliable in the field of history 
and geography. The early invention of printing 
(about 600 A.D.), made cheap books accessible to 
all save the poorest. 

The most valued treasures of Chinese literature 
are the Five Classics and the Four Books. 

The first of the Five Classics is the Shu Ching^ or 
Book of History, consisting of ancient documents which 
were collected and edited by Confucius. The Sliih Ching, 
or Book of Odes, was also preserved by the Great Sage. 
It is specially valuable for the insight it gives into the 
manners and customs of the Chinese before Confucius. 
Next comes the / Ching, or Book of Changes, containing 
a curious system of philosophy, which has always been 
highly esteemed by native scholars, although no one can 
really understand it. It is followed by the Li Chi, or 
Book of Rites, and lastly by the above-mentioned Spring 
and Autumn Annals. The Four Books begin with the 
Lun Yu, or Confucian Analects, in which the Master's 
disciples have preserved many details of his teaching and 
of his personality. Here is found the Golden Rule, " What 
you would not others should do unto you, do not unto them." 
Five hundred years later Christ formulated the same rule 
positively : " As you would that men should do to you, do 
you also to them likewise." After the Analects comes the 
Book of Mencius, the ' Second Holy One,' whose genius 
brought about the final triumph of Confucianism. 

Chinese Religions. — The oldest religion was aizcestor 
worship, which still forms the foundation of national 



6o ANCIENT HISTORY 

religious life. Together with it went in earliest 
times a well-defined nature ivo7'ship. In this 
the Heaven (T'ien or Shang-ti) was the highest 
divinity, followed by Earth (Ti). From these two 
all other things orio-inated. Amono- a host of lesser 
divinities, the five sacred mountains and four sacred 
streams were most venerated. There was no priestly 
caste. 

In the sixth century B.C. two new religions arose. 
Taoism, based on the teaching of the philosopher 
Lao-tze, was originally a high but mystical faith. 
Through mixture with the old nature worship, with 
Buddhistic rites, and with all sorts of priestly fraud, 
it degenerated into a wild medley of superstitions. 
Confucianism, the orthodox faith, is a system of 
moral philosophy, which has received a religious 
stamp through adopting ancestor worship, and 
through the veneration of Confucius. 

Buddhism spread slowly before the fourth century 
B.C. Having adopted many old religious practices, 
until little of the original faith of Buddha was left, 
it became the prevailing religion among the masses. 

Foundation of the United Chinese Empire by Shih 
Hwang-ti (b.c. 246-221). — The Chow Dynasty, and 
with it the feudal system, lasted for nearly nine 
centuries. It was a period rich in great men, among 
whom Lao-tze, Confucius, and Mencius were pre- 
eminent. So long, however, as the 'Middle Kingdom' 
of the Chow rulers was surrounded by rival feudal 
principalities, the political strength of the people was 
wasted by internal feuds. Only by union could the 
country attain its highest national development. 



THE ANCIENT ORIENTAL COUNTRIES 6i 

The task of welding the feudal states into a 
single nation was completed by the renowned Chung 
or Skill Hwang-ti, second ruler of the T sin Dynasty. 
He had the genius of a statesman and of- a general, 
and he knew how to make use of able men for his 
purpose of becoming sole ruler of China. He had 
a will power which could rise to acts of savage 
cruelty against those who opposed him. 

Chung wished to break with the past, and to remodel 
the whole government. He abolished the fiefs, and 
divided the empire into thirty-six provinces, ruled each 
by three officials directly responsible to him. The 
governor or viceroy, the general, and the treasurer, who 
at the present day are the heads of the provincial admini- 
stration, correspond closely to the officials created by 
Shih-Hwang-ti. The Persian government, as instituted 
by Darius, had a similar arrangement. Instead of the 
title 'Wang' (King), Chung assumed that of Hwang-ti 
(Sovereign and Divine Ruler). 

The Great Wall. — To check the invasions of the 
Huns, the emperor ordered the building of the Great 
Wall. Parts of this remarkable structure had already 
been reared by princes of the northern border, and 
were now joined into one continuous fortification, 
nearly 2000 miles in length. The Great Wall is 
the largest building in the world. But it did not 
prevent the Huns from continuing their invasions. 

The Burning of the Classics. — Shih Hwang-ti was 
strongly opposed by the conservative literati, who 
advocated a return to the old feudal regime. They 
constantly quoted the Classics in support of their 
policy. To silence the voice of the past, the emperor 
ordered that all classical books, and notably the 



62 



ANCIENT HISTORY 



works of Confucius, should be burned. The bar- 
barous order was enforced with the utmost rigor. 
Fortunately many scholars knew the Classics by 
heart, so that the books could later be re-written 
from memory. 

Shih Hwang-ti's name has deservedly been despised 
by all Chinese scholars. But his misdeeds cannot 




T..E On 



W ALL Oi Cr.INA. 



rob him of the merit of having been the true 
founder of united China. As such he ranks among 
the greatest builders of empire in all history. 

The Han Dynasty (b.c. 206- a.d. 25) and the Later 
Han Dynasty (a.d. 25-221). — Under the weak suc- 
cessor of Shih Hwang-ti the empire fell again into 
disorder. But the union was quickly re-established 
by Liu- Pang, known by the dynastic title Kau Ti, 
as the founder of the Han Dynasty. The fruits of 
union were now reaped by a vast extension of 
sovereignty to the south and west. The constant 



THE ANCIENT ORIENTAL COUNTRIES 63 

attacks of the Hiungnu (Huns) finally induced the 
imperial generals to attack the barbarians in their own 
territory. Chinese armies invaded Central Asia, and 
by their victories extended the boundaries of the 
empire to the shores of the Caspian Sea. Chinese 
colonists were settled in the north-western border 
lands, and proved a better barrier against the nomads 
than the Great Wall. 

The period of the Han Dynasty was one of general 
prosperity and of intellectual activity. In memory of 
that glorious time the Chinese still like to call them- 
selves ' Men of Han.' 

The T'ang^ Dynasty (a.d. 618-908). — During the four 
centuries after the Han Dynasty China suffered from 
internal wars and foreio^n invasions. The Huns 
finally conquered the northern parts of China, and set 
up a kingdom of their own, called Wei, which lasted 
from A.D. 386 to 534. 

A new era of prosperity came to China with the 
T'ang Dynasty. 

Wells Williams^ says : " During the two hundred and 
eighty-seven years they held the throne China was probably 
the most civilized country on earth ; the darkest days of the 
West, when Europe was wrapped in the ignorance and 
degradation of the Middle Ages, formed the brightest era of 
the East. They exercised a humanizing effect on all the 
surrounding countries, and led their inhabitants to see the 
benefits and understand the management of a government 
where the laws were above the officers." 

The second emperor of this family, known by the 
title of Tai-tsung (Our Exalted Ancestor), will ever 

'Author of an excellent work on China, entitled The Middle 
Kingdom. 



64 ANCIENT HISTORY 

be reverenced for his wisdom and humanity. He 
encouraged learning, spread education, and caused 
historical records to be drawn up with the greatest 
care. He made personal tours through the provinces 
to see the condition of the people, and drew up an 
improved code of laws. Though he preferred the 
quiet life of a scholar, he also won glory by his 
prowess and his generalship. The Turkish tribes of 
Central Asia were subjugated, and the confines of the 
empire were again extended to the Persian border and 
the Caspian Sea. The conquest of Corea, begun by 
Tai-tsung, was completed by his successor. Ambas- 
sadors from Indian states, from Persia, and from the 
Byzantine emperor Theodosius, came to Tai-tsung's 
court to express the friendship of their sovereigns. 

The Contrast between Chinese and European History. — 
The close of the Tang Dynasty brings us to the 
tenth century a.d., far Into the period reckoned as 
the Middle Ages of Western history. For China the 
history of a thousand years ago must be considered 
as modern. Since the overthrow of feudalism, about 
two thousand one hundred years ago, China has not 
experienced any deep-seated changes which can be 
compared to the transformation of Europe after the 
fall of the Roman Empire. Modern and mediaeval 
European conditions are so different that they can 
hardly be compared. Chinese conditions in the nine- 
teenth and the ninth century are so much alike that it 
would be difficult to find many points of difference. 

The Government of China. — The Chinese state is ordered 
somewhat like a great family. The Emperor is considered 
as the father and mother of his subjects, and has over them 




G.H. 



66 ANCIEiNT HISTORY 

the absolute authority which the father used to wield in the 
families of many ancient countries. He is the law-giver, the 
judge, and the high priest of the nation. Just as the head 
of a family sacrifices to the ancestors in the name of all its 
members, so the Emperor brings a yearly sacrifice to Heaven 
in the name of the whole nation. A government of this 
kind is called 2i patriarchal monarchy (/«//'= father, archal = 
ruling). The earliest governments of Greece, Rome, Judaea, 
and other countries were patriarchal monarchies. Nowhere 
else has this ancient institution been preserved so long and 
with so little change as in China. In practice, of course, 
the Emperor cannot personally regulate the affairs of 400 
million subjects. As early as 2000 years B.C., there was 
a strictly graded hierarchy of officials to carry on the royal 
government. The officials are appointed directly or in- 
directly by the Emperor, and owe their first appointment to 
a thorough knowledge of the Classics, the candidates being 
selected by regular literary examinations.^ 

Liberties of the People. — While the Chinese government is 
nominally an absolutism, it is far from being a despotism 
like that of most Oriental countries. Public opinion is 
respected by the officials. In purely local affairs the people 
enjoy a large measure o-f self-government. The heads of 
the families in a village elect their own headman. He 
guides all the corporate business of the community, settles 
disputes between the families, and represents the village in 
its dealings with the imperial officials. There is no European 
country, save England, in which the individual is so little 
interfered with by the government as in China. 

The Chinese Family. — The unit of Chinese society is the 
family rather than the single citizen. The family is the 
basis of the state. The rules of filial piety and of brotherly 
helpfulness regulate minutely the relations of the family 
members towards each other. All owe strict obedience to 
the head of the family. He has the same 'patria potestas' (in 
Latin, fatherly authority) which was exercised by the father 

^ The reforms mentioned in the last chapter have changed the system. 



THE ANCIENT ORIENTAL COUNTRIES 67 

in earliest Rome, where he could even punish the disobedient 
son with death. There is, in fact, the closest resemblance 
between early Roman and present Chinese family law. 

It is mainly through the strict conservation of the family 
system that the Chinese state has preserved itself unchanged 
until the present day. Besides its admirable features, the 
system also has some serious drawbacks. The duty of the 
older toward the younger generation is little touched upon. 
The ethics of the family support the past, but do not help 
the rising generation, on whom the future depends. An 
industrious younger brother frequently must give up his 
earnings to support in idleness a crowd of older relatives. 
Hence the forces of conservatism have always been stronger 
in China than in any other country of mediaeval or modern 
times. 

The Superiority of Chinese Civilization. — The civiliza- 
tion of China was carried into Korea, Japan, and the 
states of the Indo-Chinese peninsula. What the Far 
East possesses in arts, literature, and philosophy is 
almost w^holly, directly or indirectly, the product of 
the Chinese genius. In two respects Chinese civiliza- 
tion stands superior to any other. First, in the 
number of people that have lived under it ; secondly, 
in the length of its existence. The Greek civilization 
of the fourth century b.c. has lived on to the present 
day only as one of several elements in modern 
Western civilization, while the Chinese civilization 
of the same period has continued unbroken and 
almost unchano-ed to the beo^inninaf of the twentieth 
century. 

III. JAPAN. 

The Country and the People. — Japan, called Nippon 
in the native tongue, consists of a chain of islands, 



68 ANCIENT HISTORY 

large and small, stretching- from Kamchatka in the 
cold north to Taiwan (Formosa) in the South China 
Sea. The large, central group of islands, which con- 
stitutes Japan proper, has all the natural advantages 
required for the growth of a powerful, sea-faring nation. 
Japanese mariners sailed their ships to all the coasts 
of Eastern and Southern Asia. The sea protected 
Japan from the Tartar invasions, from which the 
neighboring China had to suffer. What the Great 
Wall could not effectively do for China, the ocean 
did freely for Japan. 

The Japanese are of Mongolian race, and seem more 
closely related to the Coreans than to the Chinese. 
They came originally from the Asiatic continent and 
supplanted barbarous aborigines, of whom the hairy 
Ainus in the northern island of Yesso are descendants. 
The Japanese are distinguished -above all other 
Asiatics by their facility in adopting and imitating 
foreign ideas and inventions. 

The Beginnings of Japanese History. — Jimmu Tenno, 
the first Mikado or emperor, is said to have conquered 
the southern part of the largest island in the year 
660 B.C. He is still worshipped as the ancestor of 
the ruling dynasty, and Japanese chronology begins 
with the year of his accession. Japanese history 
before the Christian era is largely mixed with fable. 
More reliable ground is reached with the third cen- 
tury after Christ. At that period the empress Jingu 
led an expedition into Corea, and the southern part 
of the peninsula became tributary to Japan. 

Introduction of Chinese Civilization and of Buddhism. 
— The Corean expedition opened a new era for Japan. 



THE ANCIENT ORIENTAL COUNTRIES 69 

The Coreans stood wholly under the influence of the 
neighboring Chinese civilization, and they soon com- 
municated the industries, arts, and literature of 
China to their overlords. The Chinese Classics 
became an essential part of Japanese learning. In 
architecture, painting, and letters, the Japanese im- 
proved on their models and developed a truly national 
art and literature. Buddhism was introduced from 
China in the middle of the sixth century, and spread 
rapidly over the whole country. 




3prnue-| mJO|^ 



CHAPTER VI 

GREEK HISTORY TO THE PERSIAN WARS 

The Geography of Greece, and its Influence on History. 
— Greece proper is the southern, narrow part of the 
Balkan peninsula. Though it is very small, mountain 
barriers divide it into many districts. As most of the 
mountains were hard to cross, each district began 
its local development separately from the others. In 
consequence many little states grew up, but no united 
nation was ever formed. The coast of Greece is 
deeply indented by many bays, containing good har- 
bors. Numerous islands lie both in the Ionian Sea 
on the west, and in the A e mean Sea on the east. 
The Aegaean archipelago connects with the west 
shore of Asia Minor, which is similar to Greece 
proper, and was also settled by Greeks. Navigation 
and trade arose naturally among people so well 
situated. The climate of Greece was very agreeable, 
the soil was mostly fertile, and the scenery beautiful. 
Altogether, Greece was a country well fitted by 
nature to become the home of a progressive race. 

The following geographical names are of import- 
ance : Northern Greece lay between the Cambimian 
Motnitains on the north and a line drawn from the 



72 ANCIENT HISTORY 

Ambracian Gulf to the Malian Gulf on the south. 
To the north, near the sea, was Mount Olympus^ 
believed to be the home of the Greek gods. The 
only good road into central Greece led through the 
pass of Thermopylae^ a narrow passage between steep 
mountains and the Malian Gulf. Central Greece 
reached to the Corinthian Gulf and the Isthmus of 
Corinth. It included the district of Attica, with the 
capital Athens. Almost in the exact centre of 
central Greece lay Delphi, which the Greeks con- 
sidered to be the centre of the earth. Further east, 
in the district of Boeotia, was the city of Thebes. 
The isthmus of Corinth got its name from a wealthy 
commercial city situated there. Southern Greece, 
generally called the Peloponnesus, had Sparta in the 
district of Laconia for its leading city. Opposite the 
coast of Attica and Boeotia lay the long island of 
Euboea, called Negropont on modern maps. The 
most celebrated island in the Aegaean was Delos, 
a sacred place. Of the numerous Greek cities in 
Asia Minor, Ephesus and Miletus were most notable. 
Beginnings of Greece. — The Greeks were not the 
first inhabitants of the country named after them. 
They entered from the north or north-east, and 
gradually took possession of the coast of Asia Minor, 
the Aegaean islands, and the European mainland. 
The oldest descriptions of Greek society are found 
in the poems of Homer, dating back to some time 
before looo B.C. At that period the Greeks were 
still a rough people, but with many pleasing qualities. 
They engaged in agriculture, kept flocks of sheep 
and cattle, and enjoyed hunting or war. Trade over 



GREEK HISTORY TO THE PERSIAN WARS 73 

sea had begun, but went hand in hand with piracy. 
The government was a monarchy, in which the king 
stood over the tribe just as a father watches over the 
family. Public business was transacted by the king 
and the Elders of the noble families, either in the 
royal house, or in an 
open place near it, 
where all the freemen 
could listen. The 
elders could give their 
advice, but the king 
finally decided all mat- 
ters personally. The 
common freemen were 
not allowed to join 
in discussion, but they 
showed their assent by 
shoutinsf and their dis- 
sent by silence. The 
king was commander- 

1 . /- 1 . Homer. 

in-chiei durmg war, 

and had to fight at the head of the citizen soldiers. 
He also was the high priest, who sacrificed to the 
gods in the name of his people. 

Love of Liberty. — The Greeks shared with most 
Aryan races a love for personal liberty. This is 
evident in the earliest times. Though the kings 
claimed to be descended from gods, they were 
not themselves considered divine, like the Pharaohs 
and the Babylonian despots. Their mode of 
life differed little from that of the free citizens. 
They were not secluded, could be approached by 




74 ANCIENT HISTORY 

anyone, and even took part in common field work. 
They had no such arbitrary power as the eastern 
monarchs. All the freemen considered that they had 
a personal interest in the government, in which, as 
above told, they actually took some part. In most 
of the Greek states the freemen gradually increased 
their own power, and diminished that of the king, 
until the government became an actual rule by the 
people or democracy (^^;;^<9^ = people; cracy = xvX^). 
Under such a rule no man was master, but the people 
managed their own affairs. 

City States. — A Greek state consisted of a walled 
city and the rural district surrounding it. Usually 
it had a separate sea-port, unless the city itself 
was situated directly on the coast. Ancient Greece 
was made up of hundreds of such little indepen- 
dent states. The citizens of every one were jealous 
of their own rights, and very patriotic. But their 
patriotism was strictly local. They cared nothing 
for the welfare of neighboring states. On the con- 
trary, if a city grew so powerful as to threaten the 
independence of its neighbors, these often combined 
against it, and tried by war to ruin the power of 
the sister state, rather than to be dominated 
by it. 

Excessive Individualism. — The tendency to give 
the greatest possible amount of liberty to every 
single person is called 'individualism.' As already 
pointed out, the Greeks were almost the opposite 
of the Asiatics in this respect. Under the despotic 
governments of Egypt and Mesopotamia, the indivi- 
dual subject had no voice in public affairs. He 



GREEK HISTORY TO THE PERSIAN WARS 75 

could in no way assert his own will as against that 
of the all-powerful king. In most of the Greek city 
states, every citizen could come to the front, if only 
his talents were sufficient. Individual ability counted 
far more than inherited privilege. But in some 
respects Greek individualism went too far. Under 
every orderly government, the single persons must 
give up some rights for the benefit of the whole 
community. If all followed their private interests 
only, confusion would reign at once. In Greece it 
happened too often that able men preferred their 
private interests to those of the state. In the same 
way, the single states never could subordinate their 
local ambitions and hatreds to the welfare of the 
Greek nation. The Greeks were strong" enough, 
if they had only united, to found a world-empire 
extending from Spain to India. But their excessive 
individualism misled them, and they ruined each 
other in petty wars, caused by local pride and 
jealousy. 

Dorians and lonians. — The Greeks were divided 
into several large branches, which differed somewhat 
in their language and customs. The leading branches 
were the Dorians and the lonians. The individual- 
ism above described was best developed among the 
lonians. Most of their states were democratic. The 
freedom of life and of work in the Ionian states 
largely accounts for the high perfection reached there 
in many branches of art and learning. The greatest 
Ionian city was Athens. The Dorians were a less 
gifted race : they were slower to learn and more 
conservative, but had more respect for authority. 



76 ANCIENT HISTORY 

They generally preferred an aristocratic government 
{aristo = noble). Sparta was the dominant Dorian 
state. 

The Age of the Tyrants (650-500 B.C.). — Most 
Greek governments beo-an as monarchies. The 
nobles, who formed at first an advisory council, 
gradually took away the king's authority, and got 
the government entirely into their own hands. 
Their rule was then called an oligarchy {plig—2i 
few, rtir^/^jK = government), or an aristocracy. Very 
commonly their rule gradually grew more arbitrary 
and oppressive. Taxes were paid by the common 
people, but public offices could be held only by 
nobles. In lawsuits, tried before the oligarchical 
magistrate, the poor man could not get justice, while 
the rich noble usually won his case. Naturally the 
common people grumbled at such oppression, and 
were ready to revolt at the first favorable moment. 
For this purpose they were often aided and led by 
some ambitious noble, who overthrew the oligarchy 
with the help of the people. And then, instead of 
establishing a democracy, the leader kept all power 
himself, and became sole ruler. Such a ruler was 
termed a tyrant. Of the many tyrants in Greek 
history, Pisisti^attcs of Athens and his sons are best 
known. Their story will be briefly told below. 
Few tyrannies lasted more than three generations. 
Then the tyrants were killed or exiled by the people, 
who could not bear the idea of having a single 
man as their absolute master. 

Greek Colonization. — The changes in government 
just described were generally accompanied by violent 



GREEK HISTORY TO THE PERSIAN WARS 77 

party struggles. The leaders of the defeated party- 
did not wish to submit to the new rule, or they 
were exiled. In either case they had to look for 
a new home. Thus party strife led to the founding 
of many colonies. Other causes led to the same 
result : among them over-population and love of 
adventure were most prominent. The colonists 
transplanted their religion and customs to their new 
homes, and thus Greek civilization was carried to 
most of the shores of the whole Mediterranean and 
the Black Sea. Southern Italy, up to the bay of 
Naples, was fringed with Greek colonies. Tarentum, 
which has survived in the modern Taranto, was once 
the richest Greek city in Italy. In Sicily the colony 
of Syi^acuse attained great fame and power. The 
westernmost Greek settlement was that of Massilia, 
the modern Marseilles. Among the colonies to the 
north, Byzantium is the most interesting. Its name 
was changed to Constmitinople by the Roman emperor 
Constantine. The Greek colonies were politically 
independent from their mother cities. But they 
formed centres of Greek culture all over the PTeater 
part of the Western world, as it was then known. 
All those countries and cities together, where the 
Greek language was spoken, were called Hellas. 
Hellas, then, was not a single continuous country, 
but was widely scattered, like the modern British 
empire. 

Early History and Institutions of Sparta. — The 
Spartans have been mentioned as the leading Dorian 
people. They entered the Peloponnesus from the 
north, about iioo B.C., and gradually conquered 



78 ANCIENT HISTORY 

the southern part of it. By the sixth century B.C., 
they stood at the head of all the states in the 
Peloponnesus, and were recognized as the first 
military power in the whole of Hellas. 

Three Classes. — The district of which Sparta was 
the capital, was called Laconia, and its inhabitants 
were also known as Lacedaemonians. They were 
divided into three classes : the Spartans, the Perioeci, 
and the Helots. The first were descendants of the 
Dorian conquerors. They were few in number, only 
about one fourth of the Perioeci, and one twelfth 
of the lowest class. Only the Spartans were counted 
as citizens. They owned the best land, but left its 
tillage mostly to the Jower classes. Their own life 
was like that of soldiers in camp : they prepared 
and drilled for war, when they were not actually 
eno-aoed in it. The Perioeci were free to till their 
land, but had to pay tribute and render military 
service to the Spartans. The Helots were slaves, 
owned by the state, and distributed among the Spartan 
families. 

The Constitution and Laws of Sparta are ascribed 
to Lycurgus (about 8co B.C.). Two kings acted as 
generals, high priests, and judges. Their authority 
was very limited, the government being in fact a 
kind of republic, in which the aristocracy had most 
of the power in its hands. The Council of Elders 
consisted of twenty-eight life members over sixty 
years of age. In this council all public measures 
were discussed before they were laid before the 
Popular Asse77tbly, which gave the final decisions. 
All Spartans over thirty years old belonged to the 



GREEK HISTORY TO THE PERSIAN WARS 79 

assembly. They were not allowed to discuss the 
business in hand, but only showed their opinion 
by shouting or by silence. 

The Education and the Customs of the Spartans all 
served one purpose : to rear a race of strong and 
brave soldiers. Soon after birth, the babies were 
brought before the Council for inspection. Weakly 
ones were taken from the mothers and killed. At 
the age of seven the boys entered a public training 
school, where they were drilled in all kinds of 
military and gymnastic exercises. The education of 
their minds was entirely neglected. Music was 
taught, because the Spartans rightly believed that 
it raised the courage of the soldiers. In order to 
accustom the boys to pain and hardship, they were 
often beaten without cause, and were obliged to 
sleep on hard beds, with very little clothing. Their 
food was bad, and barely enough to satisfy hunger. 
The teachers liked it, if the boys stole additional 
food wherever they could find it, because in war 
time soldiers also were often obliged to search for 
hidden supplies. But if a boy was caught stealing, 
he got a terrible beating for having been so clumsy. 
The Spartans remained until old age under a severe 
military discipline. The men could not live with 
their families, but ate and slept together, like soldiers 
in camp. The education of the girls aimed at 
developing strong and healthy mothers. They also 
had to practise gymnastics, and contested in public 
dances and foot races. The married women, how- 
ever, enjoyed much freedom, and exercised some 
influence over public affairs. 



8o ANCIENT HISTORY 

Results of the Spartan System. — Since the aim of 
Lycurgus was to make a nation of soldiers, his 
institutions must be considered excellent of their 
kind. The Spartans were, in fact, for several cen- 
turies, the best and most feared soldiers in Greece. 
But nothing- else can be said in favor of the Spartan 
training. Of all the invaluable progress made by the 
Greeks, for the benefit of the whole later world, 
nothing is due to Sparta. While Athens rose to a 
height of culture, which is still admired by posterity, 
Sparta remained a big village of straw and mud, 
sheltering a semi-savage population. To the rest of 
Greece their military power did far more harm than 
good. They had no benefit from it themselves, 
because their whole lives were spent in the slavery 
of a military camp. The failure of the Spartan 
institutions to accomplish any worthy results helps 
to prove that man must seek superiority through 
rational cultivation of his mind rather than through 
brute strength. 

Early History and Institutions of Athens. — The early 
ofovernment of Athens was like that of the Homeric 
times, outlined above. The internal history of the 
state shows first the gradual diminution of the royal 
power, and the growth of an aristocracy. This in 
turn had to yield to the demands of the common 
freeman for participation in the government. Step 
by step the power of the people increased, until they 
had practically the whole government in their hands. 
Thanks to the writings of several Greek historians, 
the development can be traced with sufificient clear- 
ness. For the student of governmental institutions, 



GREEK HISTORY TO THE PERSIAN WARS 8i 

the political growth of Athens is more instructive 
than any other part of her history. Therefore special 
stress will be laid on it here. 

From Monarchy to Aristocracy. — The last hereditary 
king of Athens was Codrus, who reigned shortly 
before the year looo B.C. The legend said that 
Codrus died a heroic death in battle against the 
Spartans, laying down his life to save his country. 
Because no king could equal his goodness, the Athen- 
ians wished to have no more kings. Hence the son 
of Codrus received the title Arckon, which meant 
ruler. For three centuries the archons were chosen 
for life, from the family of Codrus. Then their 
tenure of office was limited to ten years, and soon 
they were selected from any one of the noble families. 
During these changes the authority of the archon 
had been steadily lessened, while the council of nobles 
increased its power. Finally, in 682 b.c, the last 
traces of the ancient monarchy vanished. Nine 
archons were now chosen annually from among the 
nobles. One of them retained the name ' kinp^- 
archon,' but his functions were merely those of a 
high priest. There was also a presiding archon, after 
whom the year was named, and a military archon. 
The other six were judges. To prevent any archon 
from assuming undue power, they were constantly 
watched by a council called the Areopagus, which 
annually chose the new archons. The outgoing 
magistrates became members of the Areopagus. 

Discontent of the People : Insurrection of Cylon. — The 
nobles conducted the government in a selfish manner, 
disregarding the interests of the great majority of 

G.H. F 



82 ANCIENT HISTORY 

the citizens. There were no published laws, and the 
magistrates often decided cases to favor their friends 
rather than to grant justice. The common people 
had special cause for complaint on account of the 
harsh law of debt, which provided that a debtor or 
his family could be sold for the benefit of the creditor. 
The hardships of military service, and bad crops, 
brought many poor men into debt, when it clearly 
was only their misfortune and not their fault. Yet 
the nobles upheld the bad law, and threatened to 
reduce a great part of the people to slavery. An 
ambitious nobleman, named Cylon, made use of the 
popular discontent in an attempt to overthrow the 
aristocracy. From his father-in-law, who was tyrant 
over a neighboring state, he got a band of soldiers, 
and with them seized the Acropolis. {Acros = h\g\\; 
polls = c\iy \ name of a fortified hill in the middle of 
Athens.) Cylon might have succeeded, had he 
won the favor of the populace. But he did not 
consider it worth while to please the masses, aiming 
only at power for himself. When the archons be- 
sieged Cylon on the Acropolis, the people did not 
lift a finger to help him, and he had to flee for 
his life. His friends were put to death, in spite 
of a promise to respect their lives. This happened 
about 630 B.C. 

The Code of Draco (62 1 b.c). — This breach of promise 
and the execution of the conspirators cast much dis- 
credit on the government. It weakened the position 
of the nobles, so that they were obliged to yield 
to some of the popular demands for reform. Arbi- 
trary legal decisions were stopped by the writing 



GREEK HISTORY TO THE PERSIAN WARS 83 

and publication of laws. The task of drawing up 
the code was performed by the archon Draco, His 
code, however, did little to better the condition of 
the people. The law of debt remained unchanged, 
and many other laws were so severe, that later 
Athenians referred to the code as having been written 
with blood rather than with ink. Since then severe 
laws are often called ' Draconian.' 

Solon. — The contrast between rich and poor 
steadily grew sharper, and the bitterness of the 
people more dangerous, until a bloody revolution 
was imminent. To avert the danger, the nobles 
asked the wisest man of their number to make a 
thorough reform of the laws, and of the constitution 
of the state. The right man for the crisis was found 
in Solon, who has ever since been regarded as the 
founder of the new Athens, and as one of the great 
sages of Greece. About his personality little is 
known. He was of noble birth, and had distinguished 
himself as a warrior and poet. His patriotism had 
won the confidence of all parties. 

Abolished the Harsh Laws of Debt. — Solon's first 
care was to relieve the lower classes of their unjust 
burdens by cancelling all outstanding debts. Further- 
more, he ordered that debtors should no longer be 
sold as slaves by their creditors. 

Constitutional Reforms (594 b.c.).— Solon made land 
the basis of political rights. He divided the popula- 
tion of Attica into foitr classes, according to their 
income in corn, oil, or wine. The first class had 
annual crops amounting to at least five hundred 
measures of grain. In the second place came the 



84 ANCIENT HISTORY 

three hundred bushel^ men, in the third the two 
hundred. All those having still smaller incomes fell 
under the fourth class, called thetes. 

Only members of the first class, who also belonged 
to the nobility, were eligible to the archonships. 
Minor offices could be held by any one of the first 
three classes. The magistrates were elected by a 
Popular Assembly, in which every citizen, including 
the thetes, had a vote. This assembly could also 
pass new laws, though it was not allowed to originate 
them. It could only decide on business which had 
first been prepared in the Senate of Four Hundred, 
a body which was elected annually from among the 
three higher classes. Solon retained the Areopagus 
as a board for the general supervision of the govern- 
ment. It watched over the behavior of magistrates, 
and had an oversight over the morals of the citizens. 
The nobles could have been well satisfied with 
Solon's constitution, because the archonships and the 
areopagus remained wholly in their hands. The 
lowest class, on the other hand, no longer needed 
to fear oppression, because every citizen could vote 
in the assembly. To protect the common people 
from partisan judgments, Solon also made a new 
law court, called the Heliaea, to which citizens from 
all classes were chosen annually as judges. Any man 
who thought that the archons had judged his case 
unjustly could appeal to this popular court. 

Tyranny at Athens (560-511 b.c). — Although Solon 
had done his best to please all parties, discontent did 

1 Bushel, an English measure of corn. The Greek measure had a 
dififerent name, of course. 



GREEK HISTORY TO THE PERSIAN WARS 85 

not stop. The nobles longed for their former .power, 
and the lower classes wished to get still more rights. 
The quarrel reached almost the stage of civil war. 
A young noble, nephew of Solon, by the name of 
Pisistratus, placed himself at the head of the people's 
party. Through their aid he gained control of the 
government, and made himself absolute ruler. The 
nobles drove him out twice, but he finally established 
his power so firmly that he could later transmit it 
to his sons, Hippias and Hipparckus. 

Pisistratus did not abolish the Solonian constitution. 
He only took care that all the high magistrates were 
always chosen from among his relatives or friends. 
His rule was mild and just, and brought prosperity 
to Athens. His sons followed his example, until 
Hipparchus was murdered by a young nobleman, 
whose sister the tyrant had insulted. Hippias was 
now filled with suspicion and fear for his own life. 
He put many citizens to death, and roused the 
indignation of the Athenians by his hard rule. In 
the rebellion which naturally soon followed, Hippias 
succeeded in escaping to Asia Minor, where he settled 
as a dependent of the Persian king. 

The Reforms of Cleisthenes (509 e.g.). — The fall of 
the tyranny was the signal for renewed civil strife. 
Aristocracy and democracy each fought for the upper 
hand. The people got an able leader in Cleisthenes, 
a noble who drove the aristocratic faction out of 
the city. He then carried out a number of reforms, 
which increased the power of the people still further. 
The changes which Cleisthenes made in the constitu- 
tion were based on the work of Solon. Only members 



86 ANCIENT HISTORY 

of the first property class could become archons, but 
they no longer needed to be of noble birth. 

The Senate was increased in membership to five hundred, 
fifty elected annually from each of the ten tribes into which 
Attica was now divided. 

The most radical step taken by Cleisthenes was giving the 
franchise (right to vote) to all free citizens of Attica, in- 
cluding many who had recently been slaves. The member- 
ship of the Public Assembly was thereby so much increased 
that this body became the strongest part of the government. 
The Ecclesia — so the assembly was called — dealt with every 
kind of public business. It elected magistrates, and judged 
them at the end of their term of office. It controlled 
taxation and government expenditure, decided on war or 
peace, and concluded treaties or alliances with other states. 
Any citizen could mount the speaker's platform and address 
the assembly. Hence public oratory was developed to a 
high point of excellence. Bad speakers were hissed down 
by the hearers, while favorite orators exercised great 
influence. The Athenians soon grew very proud of their 
right of free speech, which they considered the best gift of 
political freedom. 

The powers of the Heliaea, the popular court organized by 
Solon, were largely increased. To prevent bribery of the 
judges, an intricate system of selecting them shortly before 
the trial was devised. 

Ostracism. — Cleisthenes had himself been a witness 
of the tyranny of Pisistratus and Hippias ; he had 
also learned the dangers of civil w^ar. To ensure 
the young democracy against these tv^o dangers, 
he introduced a curious safeguard, the so-called 
Ostracism. If any one statesman grew so powerful 
as to threaten the constitution, or if two party leaders 
endangered the public peace by their disagreement, 
then the dangerous man could be removed by banish- 



GREEK HISTORY TO THE PERSIAN WARS 87 

ment. Six thousand votes cast against one name 
meant a decree of honorable exile for ten years. 
The votes were secret, and were written on pieces 
of shell. (In Greek, os^racoji = shell, hence the name.) 
No disgrace was attached to ostracism : on the con- 
trary, it was a recognition that the person ostracized 
enjoyed the highest political standing. On their 
return from exile several statesmen immediately 
assumed the leadership in public affairs. This method 
of settling party strife remained in use for nearly 
a century, but was not often called for. 

The institutions of Cleisthenes had a stimulating 
effect on the growth and progress of Athens. The 
citizens took great pride in their state. Under the 
influence of liberty and justice, which gave an equal 
chance for advancement to all, every kind of work 
and enterprise flourished. The Spartans were jealous 
of the prosperity of their rival, and even led a large 
army against Athens, with the intention of over- 
throwing the democracy. The Athenians seemed 
lost before their superior enemies. Luckily the allies 
of Sparta got angry about the injustice of the 
attack, and obliged the Spartans to retreat without 
fighting. 



CHAPTER VII 
THE PERSIAN WARS AND THE AGE OF PERICLES 

Events Leading up to the Persian Wars. — In the 

chapter on Persian history it has been told how 
Darius I. led an expedition into Southern Russia, 
and how one of his generals annexed a considerable 
part of the Balkan peninsula to the Persian empire. 
The conquest of Lydia had already made Persian 
subjects of the Greeks living in the coast cities of 
Asia Minor. It seemed to depend only on the 
pleasure of the Great King whether Greece proper 
should also be added to his vast dominions. His 
armies had hitherto proved invincible, and his 
financial resources were practically unlimited. That 
the litde Greek states would be able to offer any 
effective resistance asfainst Persian attack seemed 
impossible. 

Revolt of the Asiatic Greeks; Submission of Mace- 
donia. — In the year 500 B.C. the Greeks of Asia 
Minor tried by a sudden revolt to shake off the 
Persian yoke. Athens sent help to her sister cities, 
and their joint forces burned Sardis, the residence 
of the Western Satrap. Darius I. at once punished 
the rebels, and restored order in Asia Minor. He 



PERSIAN WARS AND THE AGE OF PERICLES 89 

also determined to revenge the insult offered by 
the Athenians. He sent the general Mardonius 
with a large army and a fleet to conquer Greece, 
and to destroy Athens. Mardonius received the 
submission of Macedonia, a kingdom extending to 
the northern boundary of Greece. But his further 
progress was stopped by a storm, which destroyed 
the fleet when it tried to pass the dangerous pro- 
montory of Mount Athos. 

Second Expedition. — A few years later, in 490 b.c, 
Darius commanded two of his best generals to carry 
out the punishment he had sworn to inflict on Athens. 
Led by Hippias, the exiled tyrant, they sailed across 
the Aeoaean in an immense fleet, bearinsf over 
100,000 soldiers. After conquering several islands 
they landed near Marathon, on the east coast of 
Attica. 

Athens had a force of 10,000 men to oppose to 
the enemy. The Spartans promised aid, but delayed 
on account of some religious ceremonies. Only the 
citizens oi Plataea, a little town of southern Boeotia, 
proved their courage and their friendship for Athens 
by coming in full force, 1000 men strong, to share 
the dangers of the Persian attack. 

Battle of Marathon (490 b.c). — The Athenians and 
Plataeans took their position on a range of hills 
overlooking the plain of Marathon. For over a 
week neither side wished to attack. At last a 
favorable chance came for the Greeks. The Persians 
were in disorder, embarking part of their soldiers 
on the ships, when the Athenian commander, Milti- 
ades, gave the order to advance at a run. The 



9° 



ANCIENT HISTORY 



Greek heavy armed soldiers struck the Persian 
ranks before they were properly formed. The 
Persians could not withstand the assault. They fled 
to their ships, leaving many dead, and most of 
their war stores in the hands of the victors. 

The Persian generals did not give up their plans at 
once, but tried to sail to Athens before the defending 




Engrhsh Miles 



J_ 



Stadia 



II alUrCrBoutaUsc 
3° 



army could return from Marathon. Miltiades, however, 
was informed of their movements by watchers on the 
hills, and led the soldiers back to Athens by a forced 
march. When the Persians approached the harbor, they 
found the victors of Marathon ready to prevent a landing. 
The soldiers of the Great King had so little desire for 
a second encounter with the hardy Athenian infantry that 
they ingloriously sailed back home at once. 

What the Battle of Marathon means in History. — 
Measured by the number of soldiers engaged, the battle 



PERSIAN WARS AND THE AGE OF PERICLES 91 

of Marathon was a very small affair. For the Athenians 
it meant a wonderful victory in a sudden struggle for 
their very existence. The Persians considered it as a 
little reverse, for which they hoped to make up by and 
by. Later historians, who can estimate what the battle 
of Marathon means for Western civilization as a whole, 
count it among the decisive battles of the world. A 
Persian victory would have ended Athenian freedom. 
The advances made by Athens in so many fields of 
learning and art, could not have been made under the 
arbitrary rule of a Persian satrap. A defeat, therefore, 
would have dwarfed or even ended the development of 
Greek culture, and so would have robbed later ages 
of some of the finest elements in their civilization. 

The Fame and Sudden Fall of Miltiades. — Miltiades, whose 
advice had secured the victory, became at once the most 
famous man in Greece. The Athenians praised him to 
the sky as the greatest hero who had ever lived. Their 
confidence in the savior of the country was unbounded. 
But the glory of Miltiades w,as cut short in a shameful 
way. His sudden elevation completely turned his head. 
He asked the Ecclesia to grant him the use of a fleet 
and army for a secret expedition, which would bring 
great profit to Athens. When the people granted the 
command, he employed the armament for an attack on 
one of the Greek island cities, against which he had a 
private grudge. The expedition failed completely, and 
Miltiades sailed back to Athens severely wounded and as 
a disgraced man, a traitor to the trust of his people. He 
was barely saved from being condemned to death before 
the Heliaea. Shortly afterwards he died of his wound. 

Expansion of the Athenian Navy. — After the battle 
of Marathon most Athenians believed that the 
Persians w^ould not attack them a second time. 
There was one statesman, however, who felt sure 
that Darius would take a terrible revenoe for the 



92 



ANCIENT HISTORY 



defeat. This was Themistocles, a clever politician 
and ardent patriot, a man whose genius marked 
him above all others of his time. He urged the 
Athenians to prepare with all their might for the 
comino- conflict. Above all he wanted them to 
build a strong navy. This essential part of his 

policy was opposed by 
Aristides, the leader of 
the conservative party. 
He and his supporters 
wished to keep Athens 
a land power. They 
were all land owners, 
and feared to lose poli- 
tical influence by the 
growth of the navy, 
which was manned 
largely by thetes. As 
the two policies could 
in no way be reconciled, 
ostracism was called for, 
to decide between the 
two opponents. The 
vote went against Aris- 
tides, and Themistocles remained sole leader of 
Athenian affairs. By his advice the harbor of 
Piraeus was strongly fortified, while the navy was 
completely remodelled, and soon raised to the first 
rank in Greece. 

The Persians prepare a Third Expedition against 
Greece. — Darius prepared to wipe out the disgrace 
of Marathon by an immense expedition, which he 




Themistocles. 



PERSIAN WARS AND THE AGE OF PERICLES 93 

himself meant to lead into Greece. His plan was 
cut short by his death. His son Xerxes, though 
personally timid and indolent, yielded to the advice 
of his counsellors, who promised him great glory 
from the campaign. He gave orders to collect the 
largest army ever gathered by an Eastern monarch. 
Soldiers from all parts of the vast empire marched 
to Sardis, where the army assembled. Negroes, 
Egyptians, Indians, and many other races and 
tribes swelled the forces to over a million men. 
The ofatherinof was brilliant and interestino;-, but it 
was not an army in the proper sense of that term. 
The soldiers spoke many languages, and carried 
many different kinds of weapons. Hence the various 
parts of the army could not co-operate properly, 
and confusion reigned instead of order. The pro- 
visioning of such an immense host also caused 
ofreat trouble. Stores of food were collected in 
advance along the intended route of invasion. 

A fleet of over 1300 vessels was supplied by the 
Phoenicians and by the Greek cities of Asia Minor. 
Phoenician architects also were commanded to build 
two pontoon bridges across the Hellespont. Xerxes 
remembered the destruction of Mardonius' fleet at 
Mount Athos. To avoid the dangerous cape, he had 
a ship canal dug across the lowest part of the penin- 
sula back of it. 

Plans of the Greeks. — The selfishness of the Greek 
states was more dangerous to them than the hosts 
of the Great King. In spite of the terrible danger 
they did not combine for a united defence of the 
country. A few of the cities openly preferred sub- 



94 ANCIENT HISTORY 

mission to the risk of destruction. Before opening 
the campaign, Xerxes sent envoys to Greece, to 
demand earth and water, the symbols of submission 
to Persian rule. The Athenians and Spartans killed 
the envoys by throwing them into pits and wells, 
saying, " Help yourselves to earth and water." After 
this insult, no mercy could be expected from Xerxes. 

Themistocles called a congress of the Greek states 
at Corinth, to discuss measures of defence. Most of 
the cities of Hellas, except those already under 
Persian rule, were represented at this gathering. 
The deliberations proved clearly how little national 
patriotism the Greeks possessed. Thebes preferred 
the Persian yoke, out of hatred for Athens. In some 
other states the aristocratic party urged submission, 
because the Persian king would suppress all demo- 
cratic orovernments. 

Sparta and most of her Peloponnesian confederates 
were for armed resistance, but they also thought more 
of their own safety, than of the liberty of all Greece. 
They wished to fortify the Isthmus of Corinth, and 
there defy the Persian army, leaving all northern and 
central Greece to the mercy of the invaders. The 
Athenians ably pointed out the folly of this plan. 
They said that all the states north of the Isthmus 
would thus be forced to submit, and their soldiers 
would at once be lost for the defence. 

Battle of Thermopylae (480 e.g.). — The delegates 
finally decided to make a stand at the pass of IVier- 
7nopylae. ( Thermos = hot, as in thermometer ; pylae = 
gates ; named from some hot springs near the pass.) 
Here was a narrow road between the Malian gulf 



PERSIAN WARS AND THE AGE OF PERICLES 95 

and a steep spur of the mountains, which afforded 
the only good passage from northern into central 
Greece. A force of 6000 heavy armed infantry, com- 
manded by the Spartan king Leonidas, was at once 
entrusted with the defence of this pass. 

Leonidas easily held his own against the Persian 
host. It already seemed as though Xerxes would 
have to end his southward march at Thermopylae, 
when a Greek traitor offered for gold to show a 
secret pass across the mountains. Over this by-way 
Xerxes sent some of his picked men during the night, 
and next morning their advance guard appeared in 
the rear of the pass. Leonidas at once ordered the 
bulk of his little army to retreat. He himself, with 
three hundred Spartan citizens, chose death in the 
pass. Their honor as Spartans demanded that they 
should obey to the last the order to defend the 
position. 

The heroism of Leonidas and his little band made 
a deep impression on the Persians. Such devotion 
to duty and such bravery had never been encountered 
by them. Many of their own soldiers had been 
driven into the battle with whips. The troops of 
Xerxes hereafter regarded the Greeks as superior to 
themselves, and began to be afraid of them. Thus 
the heroic death of the Spartans helped the Greeks 
to win the succeeding battles of the war. 

Battle of Salamis (480 b.c). — The Persian army met 
with no further resistance in central Greece. The 
people of Attica deserted their country. The old 
men, women, and children were taken across to the 
Peloponnesus, while the fighting men took to the 



96 



ANCIENT HISTORY 



ships. Xerxes ordered Athens to be totally destroyed, 
in revenge for the attack on Sardis twenty years 
before. 

The whole Greek fleet was assembled at the Island 
of Salamis, not far from the Piraeus. Even now, 
after most of Greece had fallen a prey to the enemy, 
the generals from different states still quarrelled about 




1! alKerCrBoutatlsc. 



their plans. Themistocles, however, saved the Greeks 
from destruction, by bringing on a naval encounter 
with the Persians. At night he sent a secret mes- 
senger to Xerxes, tellin^ him that the Greek fleet 
would disperse next day, and that by a sudden attack 
early in the morning he could destroy the whole 
Greek naval power at one blow. Xerxes followed 
this advice. On a hill near Athens overlooking the 
sea, he sat on a throne, surrounded by all his court, 
to watch the downfall of Greece. 



PERSIAN WARS AND THE AGE OF PERICLES 97 

His high hopes were broken by the most spec- 
tacular defeat recorded in history. The Great King 
helplessly looked down from his throne, while the 
Greek sailors and soldiers destroyed nearly half of 
his fleet. The rest tied in confusion from the scene 
of batde. 

Even then the remaining Persian ships still out- 
numbered those of Greece. But Xerxes had lost all 
courage, and retreated hastily to the safety of his 
Asiatic dominions. He left the veteran General 
Mardonius, with the flower of the Persian army, to 
complete the conquest of Greece. 

Fourth Expedition of the Persians against Greece; 
Battle of Plataea (479 e.g.). — When Mardonius marched 
south in the following spring, the Spartans again 
thought only of their own safety. They allowed 
Athens to be destroyed a second time. Mardonius 
had promised to make Athens the leading state in 
Greece, if she would acknowledge the Persian sove- 
reignty. The Athenians threatened to_ accept this 
offer, if the Peloponnesians would not aid them 
aoainst Mardonius. This threat at last overcame the 
Spartan selfishness. A large army of Peloponnesians, 
commanded by the Spartan king Pausanias, joined 
the Athenians. In the battle of Plataea Mar- 
donius fell, and nearly his whole army was put to 
the sword. After this crushing defeat no Persian 
army ever set foot in Greece again. 

The Greeks take the Offensive against the Persians. — 
In the same year a Greek fleet sailed to Asia 
Minor and destroyed a large Persian fleet near the 
promontory of Mycale. This was the first victory 

G.H. G 



98 ANCIENT HISTORY 

in the offensive war which the Greeks, led by Athens, 
kept up against Persia for the next forty years. The 
Persian king lost all his European territory, and had 
to give up his sovereignty over the Greek cities of 
Asia Minor. 

Disgrace of Pausanias and Themistocles. — At first Pausanias 
was chief general in the attacks on Persia. He had com- 
manded at Plataea, and since then regarded himself as the 
greatest man on earth. His behavior towards other people 
grew arrogant and insolent. Driven by his foolish ambi- 
tion, he corresponded with the Persian king, by whose help 
he wished to become tyrant of all Greece. One of his 
messengers denounced him to the Spartan government, and 
he was put to death as a traitor. The letter of Pausanias 
also cast a suspicion of treason on the Athenian Themi- 
stocles. Themistocles had long been known as a very 
unscrupulous person. He gave and received bribes, and 
abused his political influence for his private gain. But his 
extraordinary ability as a politician was of great service to 
Athens. After the defeat of Mardonius the Spartans wanted 
to prevent the Athenians from building a wall round the 
city. Sparta's whole pride lay in her military pre-eminence, 
and she feared that Athens might grow too strong. Themi- 
stocles by a clever lie deceived the Spartans, so that the 
wall could be finished, and Athens was saved from any 
further interference. Fortunately for Themistocles, he had 
recently been ostracised, when the charges against him 
reached Athens. He was condemned to death, but escaped 
to Persia. The Persian king received him as a friend, and 
gave him the revenues of three cities for life. 

Aristides the Just. — Political morality was at a low level 
among the Greeks. The lives of Pausanias and Themi- 
stocles afford only prominent examples of a spirit which 
had many followers. It is pleasant, therefore, to record 
the name of one statesman who was famous for his honesty 
and justice. 



PERSIAN WARS AND THE AGE OF PERICLES 99 

Aristides, long the rival of Themistocles, now 
became the leader in Athenian affairs. His reputa- 
tion for fairness and incorruptibility was of the 
greatest value to his mother city. He won con- 
fidence everywhere, and so made the states look to 
Athens as their natural leader. 

The Delian Confederacy. — A few years after the 
battle of Mycale most of the Greek states around 
the Aegaean formed a confederacy, for the purpose 
of attacking the Persians more methodically and 
vigorously. Athens was the political head of the 
league. The meeting place and the treasury were 
established on the sacred island of Delos, after which 
the confederacy was named. The smaller states made 
annual contributions in money, while the larger ones 
furnished ships. Aristides was chosen to determine 
what share of money or ships each state should 
o-ive. 

The Delian Confederacy becomes an Athenian Empire. 
— After some years many confederates who had 
given ships preferred to give money, like the smaller 
states, letting Athens build the ships. Presently the 
Athenians transferred the treasury from Delos to 
Athens, on the plea that the funds would be safer 
under their immediate care. But they used much of 
the money for raising fine buildings in their own city, 
instead of devoting: all to the war against Persia. 
The allies complained that Athens was robbing them, 
and many declared that they would leave the con- 
federacy and make no further payments. Thereupon 
the Athenians sent their strong fleet against them, 
punished them severely, and forced them to pay 



loo ANCIENT HISTORY 

increased contributions. In this manner the formerly- 
free members of the Delian league became tributaries 
of Athens, and the league itself was changed into 
an Athenian maritime empire. 

Sparta after the Persian Wars. — The Spartan govern- 
ment had grown still more aristocratic since the early 
times of Lycurgus. There had long existed, beside 
the Senate of Elders and the two kings, five officers 
called overseers or Epkors. These Ephors gradually 
increased their power, until they controlled the whole 
government, and even the kings had to obey their 
commands. Thus the development of the Spartan 
constitution was just the reverse of what took place 
at Athens. 

To the dislike of the Ephors against the Athenian 
democracy was added an ever-increasing jealousy. 
Sparta still enjoyed her reputation as the leading 
land power in Greece, but Athens now stood without 
a rival at the head of maritime Hellas, and also 
extended her power by land in central Greece. A 
number of Boeotian cities expelled the aristocrats, 
set up democracies, and joined the Athenian alliance. 
Alarmed at the progress of Athenian power, the 
Spartans joined the Thebans in a war against Athens, 
which lasted over ten years. At last the Athenians 
were beaten, and had to give up all further hope of 
acquiring dominion on land. Thebes again took her 
old place as the leading state in Boeotia, and re- 
established aristocratic governments in the neighboring 
cities. 

The Age of Pericles. — In Athenian history the time 
between the Persian invasions and the Peloponnesian 



PERSIAN WARS AND THE AGE OF PERICLES loi 



war is generally called the Age of Pericles, after the 
o-reat statesman who then took the lead in Athenian 
affairs. 

Pericles came of a noble Athenian family, many 
members of which had already won distinction. He 
had the very best education, and continued always 
to perfect himself in the knowledge and the arts 
which are helpful to a 
statesman. As an orator 
he easily stood first in 
his time. He was also 
a good general and a 
far-sighted politician. 
With his natural gifts he 
combined a true love for 
his city, untiring energy, 
and a lofty view of his 
duties. He never stooped 
to low intrigue ; nor did 
he attempt to benefit 
himself or to hurt his 
private enemies by his 
influence. 

For more than a generation Pericles was the 
uncrowned ruler of Athens. Yet he never was 
elected archon. He held the oftice of generaP for 
his tribe, and sometimes was elected to some minor 
positions. His power depended entirely on his 
influence over the people in the Ecclesia. The 
Athenians admired and respected him for his noble 
character, and followed his advice, because they 

^Each of the ten tribes of Attica annually elected a general. 




Pericles. 



I02 ANCIENT HISTORY 

recoo-nized that he was the wisest man amonor them. 
Never in any country has there been a more inspiring 
ruler than Pericles : king of men without force or 
hereditary right, but only through the unchanging 
greatness of his personality. 

Pericles wished to make the democracy of Athens 
as perfect a government as possible. He knew that 
a good education of all the citizens is the foundation 
of a popular government. Beside the debates in the 
Ecclesia, and the legal discussions in the Heliaea, 
the theatres were the principal schools for the grown- 
up Athenians. The plays performed there dealt 
mostly with Greek history, or with problems in 
morals and religion. Their authors were the most 
famous writers of the day. Indeed, the plays of 
Euripides and others still rank among the finest 
works of literature. For these performances Pericles 
gave free tickets to the people. In order that poor 
citizens could also take part in public affairs, he paid 
them for their attendance at the Ecclesia, and paid 
them for performing public duties. Pericles also gave 
festivals to the people at public expense, because he 
wanted all citizens to have the same chance of en- 
joying themselves, just as they all shared the same 
duties of government, and the same dangers in war. 

If the condition of a society can be rightly estimated 
by the number of great men produced in it, then 
Athens in the Periclean ao-e must be called the most 
highly civilized community in the world's history. 
Never before or since then has so much o-enius been 
gathered at one place within such a short period. In 
the long list of famous names we find the sculptor 



PERSIAN WARS AND THE AGE OF PERICLES 103 

Phidias, the historian Herodotus, the philosopher 
Socrates. Most of these great men were personal 
friends of Pericles, and owed much to his advice. 

Pericles proved the power and glory of his city to 
the world by erecting costly and beautiful public 
buildings. The Acropolis was covered with splendid 
temples. Here was built the Parthenon, or temple 





Euripides. 



to the goddess Athena, a majestic structure of white 
marble. In the Parthenon Phidias made a colossal 
statue of Athena out of gold and ivory. Many parts 
of the temple were decorated with marble statuary 
by Phidias and his pupils. Some of their work is 
still preserved, and is studied by modern artists as 
the most excellent of its kind. 

The age of Pericles was the golden time of Athens. 
But the glory of that wonderful city was just as short- 
lived as it was brilliant. The weaknesses of the 



I04 ANCIENT HISTORY 

democracy, which were still held under control by- 
Pericles, brought about its swift ruin after his death. 
In one way that great statesman had himself planted 
the seed of destruction. It was a fatal mistake to 
provide free feasts for the people. They soon became 
idle and luxurious, and began to despise manual labor. 
Common men, who had little judgment and were 
easily led astray by bad counsellors, henceforth formed 
the majority of the Public Assembly. The govern- 
ment became unsteady, and engaged in some reckless 
enterprises, which finally led to its downfall. How 
this came about will be told in the following chapter. 



CHAPTER VIII 

THE MUTUAL DESTRUCTION OF THE GREEK STATES, 
AND THEIR CONQUEST BY PHILIP OF MACEDON. 

Causes of the Peloponnesian War. — The political 
rivalry between Athens and Sparta led to the famous 
struggle known as the Peloponnesian War, which 
lasted from 431-404 B.C. The underlying cause for 
this war has already been mentioned ; it was the 
inability of the Greeks to look beyond the interests 
of each individual state, and to form a national 
union. The need for some kind of political union 
led to the system of leaderships, called hegemonies 
by the Greeks. Smaller states formed alliances 
with some strong state, which they regarded as 
their political leader. Thus Thebes had the hege- 
mony in Boeotia, Sparta in the Peloponnesus, Athens 
over the island states. Sparta and Athens both 
aspired to the hegemony of all Greece, and this 
alone was enough cause for war. Another bitter 
enemy of Athens was Corinth, once the leading 
maritime power of Greece. The growth of Athenian 
trade had been largely at the expense of the 
Corinthians, who saw themselves losing in wealth 
and influence through the gains of their proud com- 



io6 ANCIENT HISTORY 

petitor. The Tkebans had always hated Athens, and 
gladly took every opportunity to damage her. Athens 
also counted many enemies among the subject states 
of the Delian Confederacy, who were eager to break 
away from their bondage. 

The war was precipitated by a quarrel between 
Athens and Corinth, in which the latter was worsted. 
The Corinthians then complained to the Spartans, 
and the Spartan assembly, backed by all the states 
of the Peloponnesus, declared for war. 

Power of Athens and Sparta compared. — Athens was 
well protected behind strong walls, which extended 
down to the sea, and embraced the fortified harbor 
of Piraeus. Her navy was irresistible. Beside her 
numerous subjects of the Delian confederacy, she had 
a number of strong allies. Of the inland states, 
Plataea especially was her firm friend. More 
valuable than many ships and soldiers was the wise 
guidance of Pericles. 

Sparta had at her disposal the overwhelming 
land forces of the Peloponnesus, against which the 
Athenian army could not dare to take the field. The 
Thebans were valuable allies, because they con- 
stantly threatened Attica from the north. Corinth 
furnished the greater part of the Peloponnesian fleet. 
Altogether, the opponents were evenly matched, 
Athens having just as great an advantage at sea 
as Sparta had on land. 

The Peloponnesian War to the Peace of Nicias (431- 
421 B.C.). — During the first five years of the war the 
Peloponnesians annually invaded Attica, ravaging the 
fields and destroying the villages right up to the walls 



THE DESTRUCTION OF THE GREEK STATES 107 

of Athens. At the advice of Pericles the Athenians 
did not risk a decisive battle against the superior land 
forces of the enemy. They retaliated by landing on 
the Peloponnesus and destroying all property within 
easy reach of the coast. More dreadful for Athens 
than the Spartan attacks was a plague, which killed 
a great part of the population, including Pericles, 
429 B.C. The loss of his calm guidance was the 
severest blow which could befall Athens. 

The constant warfare hardened the hearts of the 
opponents, and led them to cruel reprisals. The 
Spartans took Plataea after a long siege, in which 
the defenders fought with desperate valor. The city 
was razed to the ground, and the whole garrison put 
to death. When the Spartan generals captured a ship 
of the enemy, they always threw the whole crew over- 
board. The Athenians were equally relentless in their 
punishment of Mytilene, the leading city on the island 
of Lesbos, which had revolted from the Delian league. 
At the instigation of Cleon, the Ecclesia voted to 
kill all Mytilenean men, and to sell the women and 
children as slaves. Next day the counsels of more 
prudent men induced the Ecclesia to repeal the bloody 
sentence : a swift ship was despatched with orders to 
execute only the aristocrats, more than a thousand 
in number. 

After ten years of fighting neither side had gained 
any decided advantage. In 421 b.c. the Athenian 
Nicias was able to conclude a peace for fifty years. 
The conditions of the treaty, however, were not 
strictly observed by either side, and within three 
years the war broke out afresh. 



io8 ANCIENT HISTORY 

Decline of the Athenian Democracy. — The affair of 
Mytilene shows how rash and fickle the Athenian 
people became, after they lost their great leader 
Pericles. He had always restrained them from sudden 
bursts of anger or recklessness, and encouraged them 
in times of depression. None of his successors had 
the powerful personality needed for such a control of 
the multitude. Most of them rather sought public 
favor by proposing such measures as would at the 
moment please the people. At the same time they 
placed their personal advancement above the welfare 
of the state. To them it was an advantage that the 
lower classes formed the majority of the assembly, 
because the ignorant masses are led by blind passion 
or enthusiasm rather than by calm reason. The 
democracy thus degenerated to a mob rule under 
the direction of demagogtces ((^<?;;2 = people, agogues = 
leaders, in a bad sense). The first of these dema- 
gogues was Cleon, the author of the cruel decree 
against Mytilene. He and others of his kind also 
reversed the careful policy of Pericles, which would 
have brought victory to Athens. They encouraged 
the people to engage in distant and dangerous enter- 
prises, where success was quite speculative. A few 
conservative statesmen, of whom Nicias was the most 
prominent, were unable to correct the follies of the 
mob. 

Alcibiades. — The renewal of the war, after the peace 
of Nicias, was brought about by Alcibiades, a young 
and wealthy nobleman, who had great influence over 
the Athenian people. Alcibiades had all the qualities 
needed to dazzle the common masses. Of body 



THE DESTRUCTION OF THE GREEK STATES 109 

Strong and beautiful, he was of brilliant mind, full 
of courage and enthusiasm, and gifted with a charm- 
ing eloquence, which captivated his listeners. But he 
was also dissolute, had no respect for tradition or 
authority, and knew no limits for his personal ambi- 
tion. He could not be depended upon in times of 
public danger, because he could not depend upon 
himself. His wild disposition led him into tricks of 
which only a bad schoolboy or a madman could have 
been guilty in any other country, or at any other time. 
One day, for example, he made a bet that he would 
strike one of the most prominent citizens in the open 
street. He actually struck the gentleman and won 
his bet ; but next day he offered to have himself 
beaten as punishment for the insult. It is hard to 
understand why the Athenians put any trust in such 
a fickle person. The briefest explanation is this : his 
excellences and his vices were shared in lesser degree 
by the people themselves. If Alcibiades changed his 
mind from one day to the next, that seemed no dread- 
ful fault to the assembled people, who changed their 
opinions with the same swiftness. All men are more 
likely to forgive in others the faults which they them- 
selves possess. An i\thenian writer well summed up 
the relation between Alcibiades and the people when 
he said : " They detest him, need him, and cannot do 
without him." 

The Sicilian Expedition (415-413 b.c). — The ascend- 
ency of Alcibiades soon brought the misfortunes, of 
which moderate statesmen warned the Athenians. 
He promised the people that he would conquer Sicily 
and Southern Italy, and would thus lay the founda- 



no ANCIENT HISTORY 

tions of a great Athenian empire. With the forces 
so acquired, Athens could later easily crush Sparta, 
and rule as queen over all Hellas. Nicias tried in 
vain to convince the people that instead of the 
glories painted by Alcibiades they might more likely 
meet shame and ruin. The light-hearted enthusiasm 
of the younger statesman overcame all anxious doubts. 
A large fleet and army was voted for the expedition, 
and Nicias and Alcibiades, with a third colleague, 
were put in command. 

Misfortune attended the enterprise from the very 
start. Alcibiades was accused of a crime against 
religion by his enemies, and was recalled to Athens 
for his trial. The Athenian generals lost precious 
time in smaller enterprises, instead of attacking 
Syracuse, the strongest of the Sicilian cities, at once. 
Meanwhile the Syracusans prepared for vigorous 
resistance. When Nicias at last began the attack, 
he was unable to take the city. A Spartan general, 
Gylippus, organized the defence so skilfully, that 
Nicias ran danger of being defeated, and had to ask 
for strong reinforcements from Athens. Nearly the 
whole of the Athenian fighting force, two hundred 
war ships and about 40,000 men, now lay before 
Syracuse. Not a ship and hardly a man escaped from 
terrible disaster. After several defeats, the remnant of 
the fleet found itself caught in the harbor of Syracuse, 
the mouth of which was blocked by the defenders. 
The army sought safety in a retreat across the island. 
But the march into the enemy's country, without 
food and drink, was merely a measure of despair. 
Many soldiers gave up all hope, marched without 



THE DESTRUCTION OF THE GREEK STATES iii 

aim or order, and made hardly any resistance against 
their pursuers. At the ford over the Asinarus river 
the miserable fugitives were cut to pieces by the 
Syracusans. Nicias was executed, and the other 
survivors were kept as slaves. 

Alcibiades turns Traitor. — When Alcibiades was 
conducted back to Athens, he knew that he might 
be condemned before the court. Whether he was 
guilty or not of the crimes charged against him, is 
uncertain. To the Athenians his guilt was proved 
by his flight on the way. They at once condemned 
him to death. Alcibiades, in turn, set himself up as 
judge of his whole country, and punished Athens for 
having treated him so ungratefully. It was he who 
advised the Spartans to send Gylippus to Syracuse. 
And since the generalship of Gylippus brought vic- 
tory, Alcibiades may indirectly be considered as the 
destroyer of the Sicilian expedition. He also urged 
the Spartans to fortify a place called Deceleia in 
Attica, whence they could control the Attic plain, 
and hold Athens in permanent blockade from the 
land side. The Spartans followed this advice. For 
the next nine years no Athenian was safe in his own 
country outside the city walls. The last part of the 
Peloponnesian war is therefore called the Deceleian 
war. Alcibiades also pointed out how advantageous 
an alliance with Persia would be to the Spartan 
cause. By a shameful treaty with the satrap Tissa- 
pkernes, the Spartans allowed the Persians to reoccupy 
all the Greek coast cities of Asia Minor. , Tissa- 
phernes, in turn, furnished money and ships against 
Athens. 



112 • ANCIENT HISTORY 

Heroic Struggle of the Athenians ; Recall of Alcibiades. 

— At the height of their distress, the Athenians 
displayed heroic courage. By special taxation and 
unresting work they launched within a year a new 
navy, with which they inflicted several defeats on the 
combined forces of the Peloponnesians and Persians. 
Alcibiades, tired of the dull life among the Spartans, 
strove to bring about his recall to Athens by some 
signal service for the cause of his mother city. He 
persuaded Tissaphernes to desert the Spartans, and 
lend his support to the Athenians. The argument by 
which Alcibiades induced the Lydian satrap to change 
sides, shows how well the former understood the 
deplorable condition of Greece. By preventing the 
total defeat of Athens he would prolong the war until 
all Greece would be completely exhausted. Then 
Persia could have a free hand on the whole Asiatic 
coast. Tissaphernes followed the advice, with the 
result that the Athenian troops gained another advan- 
tage. Out of gratitude they actually made Alcibiades 
general, and he soon was able to drive the Pelopon- 
nesians from the northern Aegaean. For a while 
all his crimes were forgotten : he was again the idol 
of his people. But the triumph was of short duration. 
During the next campaign Alcibiades left an inex- 
perienced friend in charge of the fleet, while he went 
to carry on negotiations with Tissaphernes. The 
temporary commander was badly defeated, and his 
chief was again exiled in consequence. Alcibiades 
found his last refuge among the Persians, a fugi- 
tive from Athenian justice as well as from Spartan 
hatred. 



THE DESTRUCTION OF THE GREEK STATES 113 

Close of the Peloponnesian War. — The Athenians 
persevered in the struggle to the bitter end. At 
last, in 404 B.C., their fleet was surprised and anni- 
hilated by the Spartan commander. All prisoners 
were killed and left unburied. Athens had to sur- 
render after a close siege. The proud citizens were 
forced to demolish their own walls, while the Spartans 
played festive music. Some of the allies demanded 
that the city should be razed level with the ground, 
but the Spartans would not allow that. They were 
afraid lest Corinth or Thebes might get too strong, 
if they were not counterbalanced by Athens. 

Spartan Domination. — All through the war, Sparta 
had posed as the defender of Hellenic liberty against 
Athenian oppression. The event proved how hypo- 
critical the Spartan pretensions were. The ephors 
sent Spartan governors into all the conquered cities, 
who ruled arbitrarily, treating the people much worse 
than the Athenians had ever done. In Athens itself 
they established an oligarchy, known as the govern- 
ment of the Thirty Tyrants. After a year of misrule, 
the citizens rose in revolt, and put the tyrants to 
death. Democracy was re-established somewhat as 
it had been under Cleisthenes. In other cities the 
hatred against the Spartan governors soon reached 
such a pitch, that an alliance was formed to drive 
them out. Thebes and Corinth, the leaders, were 
joined by their former arch-enemy Athens in the 
war against Spartan domination. The Persian Satraps 
in Asia Minor gladly furnished gold to the allies, who 
inflicted a defeat on the Spartan fleet. The chief 
advantage in this struoorle remained with Athens. 

G.H. H 



114 ANCIENT HISTORY 

The long walls from the city to the Piraeaus were 
rebuilt with Persian money, and the city recovered 
much of its former prosperity. But the glorious 
days of Themistocles and Pericles were gone for 
ever. 

Hegemony of Thebes (371-362 b.c). — In 379 b.c. a 
new war broke out between Thebes and Sparta. 
With an insolent disreQ;"ard of the rigrhts of their 
neighbors, the Spartans had suddenly thrown a strong 
garrison into Thebes, expelled the democrats, and 
set up an oligarchy. For four years the Thebans 
bore the insult with seemingr meekness. But one 
night the Spartan oligarchs were murdered by con- 
spirators, who entered their house disguised as women. 
The garrison was surrounded by superior forces, and 
had to lay down its arms. 

When a large Spartan army invaded Boeotia, it 
was defeated by half the number of Thebans at 
Leuctra, in 371 B.C. By this victory the Thebans 
grew famous as the most skilful soldiers in the world. 
They owed their sudden good fortune entirely to two 
men, Epaminondas and Pelopidas. Pelopidas was a 
fine general and intrepid fighter. He had personally 
killed the chief of the Spartan oligarchs in Thebes. 
He organized a corps of young patriots, called the 
Sacred Band, who were all pledged to lay down 
their lives for their country. 

In Epaminondas Greece produced one of her most 
admirable sons. In the field he was eminent as a 
strategist, that is, a general who understands how to 
dispose his troops, and to take the best advantage 
of the ground. He invented a new order of attack, 



THE DESTRUCTION OF THE GREEK STATES 115 

which made his troops invincible. He was also a 
learned scholar, an eloquent orator, and a wise states- 
man. Under his lead Thebes humbled Sparta to 
the dust by invading the Peloponnesus four times, 
and drivino- the Lacedaemonians within their town. 
The hegemony of Thebes was not stained by cruelty 
or arrogance. Epaminondas was the only Greek 
statesman who considered the welfare of other cities 
as well as the glory of his own. Unfortunately his 
career came too late in Greek history, and was too 
short to confer any lasting benefit on the country. 
He died from a spear thrust on the battle-field, in 
362, and with him departed the power of Thebes. 

Rise of the Macedonian Power. — While the Greek 
states were engaged in their wars of mutual destruc- 
tion, a new power rose to the north of them, which 
soon was to benefit from their dissensions. The 
Macedonians were a sturdy race of shepherds and 
farmers, closely related to the Greeks. They had 
no appreciable share in Greek history until the reign 
of king Philip. This ruler had spent three years of 
his youth in Thebes as a hostage, and had there 
learned military science and statecraft from Epami- 
nondas. His natural ability as a soldier and politician 
amounted to genius. He improved on the lessons 
learned from Epaminondas, and created a new kind 
of fighting order, called the phalanx. This was an 
infantry formation marching sixteen rows deep, armed 
with long spears, which presented an impenetrable 
front of spear points to the enemy. The phalanx 
proved invincible until it met the Roman legions, 
over a century later. Philip extended the boundaries 



ii6 ANCIENT HISTORY 

of Macedonia by conquest, and advanced the welfare 
of his people by introducing Greek education and 
opening new seaports. 

Demosthenes. — When Philip had consolidated his 
power in the north, he naturally designed to extend 
his rule southward over Greece. Some of the lesser 
states offered him the best opportunity he could wish 
for, by asking him to help in a war against Phocis. 
The Phocians had robbed the treasures of the temple 
at Delphi, and were to be punished for this sacrilege. 
Philip gladly gave his assistance, and as reward for 
punishing the Phocians he was elected as a guardian 
of the Delphic temple. This was a position of con- 
siderable political weight. By it Philip gained a 
permanent voice in the inner affairs of Greece, 

He now could have made himself master of the 
country with ease had it not been for the resistance 
organized by the Athenian orator Demosthenes. This 
remarkable personality, the last of the great Greek 
patriots, has always been held up as an ideal example 
for young men. Without having any special gift for 
oratory, he succeeded through years of patient effort 
in making himself a master of that art. Many of his 
speeches are still preserved, and are studied by scholars 
of all Western nations as the best models of oratory 
ever produced. The orations of Demosthenes marked 
the last noble efforts of Athens to defend her civic 
liberty against a foreign oppressor. Unhappily there 
were many men of lower stamp in the city who 
worked for the interest of Philip. Had all shared 
the same patriotism, then Macedonia could not have 
won the hegemony of Greece. In 338 B.C. Demos- 



THE DESTRUCTION OF THE GREEK STATES 117 

thenes united the Athenians and Thebans together 
for a decisive battle against PhiHp. At Ckaeronea, 
in Boeotia, the Macedonian phalanx cut through the 
ranks of the patriots, and Greek independence was 
ended. After this date Greece was merely a part of 
the Macedonian empire, and its history was linked 
with that of its masters. 



CHAPTER IX 

HELLENIC CIVILIZATION 

The Value of Greek Achievements for Later Ages. — 

The true worth of Greece lies least in her political 
history. Much can be learned from her experiences 
in government. Statesmen like Pericles, Aristides, 
and Demosthenes may serve as models of public 
conduct. But, as a whole, Greek politics are un- 
pleasant. Their selfishness and their narrow aims 
serve as a warning rather than as an example for 
posterity. The failure of the Greeks to build up a 
nation lay largely in their character. Compared with 
other races of the West, they were lacking in morality. 
They had no elevating religion like Christianity, and 
no generally accepted standards of conduct like those 
laid down by Confucius. Their sad history, compared 
with the long duration of the Chinese empire, proves 
how indispensable the moral training of the population 
is for the welfare of a country. 

The real glory of Greece is her intellectual and 
artistic work. In nearly every form of literary com- 
position, in philosophy, in architecture and sculpture, 
the Greeks reached the highest point of excellence. 
Every Western student looks to the Greeks as his 
teachers. Even some of the most recent scientific 
theories were expressed by Greek sages more than 
two thousand years ago. They knew that the earth 



HELLENIC CIVILIZATION ng 

is round, that the sun is a globe of fire, and that the 
moon somewhat resembles the earth. While modern 
science has gone far ahead of the Greeks, some of their 
artistic and literary productions have not been equalled. 

It is quite impossible in this short work to give any 
idea of Hellenic culture. Neither is this topic so 
important for an Eastern student, because the Eastern 
civilizations have grown up quite independently of 
Greek influence. But the reader should remember 
that he will always remain a stranger to many of the 
best things and ideas of the West so long as he has 
not learned to understand Hellenic culture. 

Greek Religion. — Greek religion was originally a 
natiLre worship. The sun and the moon, the clouds 
and winds, the ocean and rivers, were all conceived 
as persons. Over them all stood the heavens, 
personified as Zeus, the father of gods and men. 
Vulcan} was the fire god, hence the term volcano. 
Athena was the goddess of wisdom and industry. She 
was the special patroness of Athens. Mars^ was the 
war god, hence the word martial means warlike. The 
god of light and of prophecy was Apollo. His most 
important temples stood in Delos, where the Delian 
confederacy had its headquarters, and at Delphi. All 
these and other gods were believed to live on Mount 
Olympus. There were thousands of minor local 
deities, connected with springs, rivers, mountains, 
and the like. 

All deities were conceived in shape like perfect 

1 These Latin names are given, because they are more familiar than 
the Greek names Hephaestus ( = Vulcan) and Ares ( = Mars). The 
Greek and Roman deities in these and other instances are very similar, 
though not identical. 



I20 ANCIENT HISTORY 

men and women. The Greeks hated anything physi- 
cally ugly. Mars, for example, was not made by the 
artists with frightful features like a Chinese war god, 
but as a very strong and beautifully shaped man. 
Human character was also attributed to the gfods. 
They had, in fact, all the virtues and vices of the 
Greeks on a mao^nified scale. 

Among the common people this religion was be- 
lieved until the spread of Christianity. Educated 
Greeks soon formed hipfher religious ideas. The 
philosopher Socrates, for example, had beliefs which 
were little different from those of many good men in 
modern civilized countries. 

Places where gods were believed to foretell the 
future were called oracles. The oracle of Apollo 
at Delphi had an immense influence all over Hellas. 
Even foreign kings and the Roman government sent 
there for advice. When the priests did not know 
what answer to give, they . made one with a double 
meaning, which was difficult to understand. Croesus 
of Lydia, for example, wanted to know from Delphi 
what would be the result of an attack on Cyrus. 
He got the oracular reply, that he would destroy a 
great empire. The answer proved correct, but the 
empire was Croesus' own. 

The Greek Games. — The Greeks put a high value 
on athletic exercises. Since they enjoyed them so 
much, they thought that the gods must also take 
pleasure in them. Therefore they held regular 
athletic games in honor of the gods. The most 
celebrated of these contests was held once every four 
years at Olympia, in the Peloponnesus, in honor of 



HELLENIC CIVILIZATION 121 

Zeus. The Olympic games were great national 
events. While they were being held, warfare was 
stopped everywhere in Greece. Spectators and com- 
petitors flocked to Olympia from all parts of Hellas. 
The contests embraced foot-races, boxing, wrestling, 
chariot races, and other exercises. Musical and lite- 
rary compositions were also recited by their authors. 
No higher honor than a first prize at Olympia could 
be won by a Greek. The winner was received in 
triumph by his fellow-citizens, and his statue, made 
by a noted artist of the day, was set up in Olympia. 
The Olympic games were held in such esteem, 
that dates were reckoned in periods of four years, 
called Olympiads. All boys and young men practised 
athletics as an essential part of their education. That 
the time given to bodily training was not lost, is 
proved by the amazing intellectual progress of the 
Greeks. Their ideal of manhood was that of a sound 
mind in a sound body.^ 

G-reek Social Life. — In the earliest times, Greek women 
enjoyed considerable freedom. The poems of Homer repre- 
sent the wife as the honored helpmate and equal of the 
husband. In historic times, the Greeks followed more 
nearly the oriental custom of secluding the women. In 
Athens and most other Greek cities the withdrawal of 
womaen from all public life had a bad moral effect. Since 
the wives enjoyed no opportunity for improving their minds, 
they could not make their society attractive to their hus- 
bands. At the same time there existed a large class of 
courtesans, many of whom were highly educated and intelli- 

^ Modern medical knowledge and psychology (study of the mind) 
show that the Greeks were right. Increasing attention is paid to 
physical training. Since 1896 the Olympian games have been revived 
for competitors from all Western countries. 



122 ANCIENT HISTORY 

gent women. These attracted the men by their clever 
conversation. The most famous woman of this class was 
Aspasia, the friend of Pericles, and herself a philosopher of 
ability. She was really an honorable lady, who might as 
well have been Pericles' wife. 

Greek social organization all rested on slavery. In 
Attica, 400,000 out of the 500,000 souls making up 
the population were slaves. In Corinth the freemen 
were only one-tenth of the total population. Athenian 
slaves were kindly treated. They filled all kinds of 
positions, including even those of small merchants, 
bankers, and secretaries. This explains why the 
freemen could devote so much time to public affairs. 
Greek government could not exist without slavery. 
It appeared natural to the Greeks, but is universally 
condemned now as degrading and pernicious. The 
remarkable achievements of the few free Greeks 
were bought by the suppression and suffering of the 
many slaves. 

Making allowances for the above faults, the social 
life of Athens was the most interesting and elevating 
which has ever existed. In no other community 
before or since was education and intelligence so 
general and of so high an order. 

Greek Philosophy and Science. — Of the long list of 
Greek philosophers only a few can here be named. 
Socrates taught in Athens from the days of Pericles 
until after the Peloponnesian war. His favorite 
method was to engage young men in conversation, 
and to show them in course of talking what 
were the right ways of regulating one's life. An 
oft-repeated saying of Socrates is: '"'Know Thyself.'' 



HELLENIC CIVILIZATION 123 

He meant that we should strive to get an under- 
standing of our place in the world, of our own 
character, and of our duties. When this saying of 
Socrates is deeply thought over, it will be found to 
underlie all progress of human knowledge. Socrates 




held that progress in knowledge and understanding 
depended on a strict regard for truth. He would 
never tell an untruth, not even for fun or out of 
politeness. When he was unjustly condemned to 
death, he could have saved his life by a polite lie to 
the judges. He preferred to die. His example cannot 
be too much admired. How much better would this 



124 



ANCIENT HISTORY 



world be, and how much pleasanter our Hves, if more 
men could only, like Socrates, speak the truth. Mutual 
distrust, for example, would at once disappear. 

Plato was a pupil of Socrates. Among other works 
he has left beautiful writings on friendship and on 
immortality. Aristotle was the most learned of all the 

ancient philosophers. He 
was the teacher of Alex- 
ander the Great. His 
existing works include 
treatises on a-rammar, on 
logic, on government, on 
political economy, on 
natural history, and still 
other subjects. No man 
after him, until modern 
times, studied and knew 
so much. He remained 
the undisputed authority 
on most topics treated 
by him, for nearly two 
thousand years. Two Greek mathematicians have 
since their time grown familiar to every generation 
of boys studying geometry and physics. Euclid lived 
in Alexandria, when that Egyptian city was the centre 
of learning. Geometry, as developed by him, is 
taught almost unchanged at the present day. Archi- 
medes had his home in Syracuse, during the third 
century B.C. He discovered, among many other prin- 
ciples of geometry and mechanics, the method of 
determining specific gravity by displacement of water. 




Archimedes. 



CHAPTER X 

ALEXANDER THE GREAT AND HIS SUCCESSORS 

Plans of Conquest in Asia. — In the year 400 b.c. an 
army of 10,000 mercenary Greek soldiers marched to 
the Euphrates near Babylon, as part of a Persian 
rebel army. The leader of the rebellion fell in battle, 
but the ten thousand were victorious. They found 
that no Persian army could withstand them, and 
marched from Babylonia to the Black Sea without 
meeting any serious resistance. This expedition 
showed how weak the Persian empire was internally. 
Many Greeks thought that a disciplined Greek army 
under a good general could easily conquer a part of 
the Great King's dominions. 

When Philip had established the Macedonian hege- 
mony over Greece, he prepared for an invasion of 
Persia, to revenge the former destruction of Athens. 
But he was assassinated before he could start on the 
campaign {336 B.C.). 

Accession of Alexander. — Philip's successor was Alex- 
ander, a youth of twenty, who had already shown skill 
and bravery as a general in the battle of Chaeronea. 
The Greeks thought that so young a man could 
not hold the realm together, and revolted at once. 



126 



ANCIENT HISTORY 



Alexander, however, proved his genius by a campaign 
so swift that all rebels were overthrown before they 
had time to mature their plans. Thebes was punished 
by total destruction. 

Conquest of the Persian Empire. — In 334 B.C. Alex- 
ander crossed the Hellespont with a picked army of 




Alexander. 



35,000 men. He was met at the river Granicus by 
the joint satraps of Asia Minor at the head of a large 
force, including Greek mercenaries. Their total defeat 
laid all Asia Minor open to the invader. He marched 
through the country at will, until Darius ///., the 
Persian King, opposed him with an immense army. 
At Issus, on a small plain in the north-east corner of 
the Mediterranean, Alexander won a brilliant victory. 



128 ANCIENT HISTORY 

7,1,7, B.C. The Persian troops were slaughtered or 
scattered, after Darius had fled in panic from the 
field. The king's family remained captive in the 
hands of the victor. 

Alexander now turned south for the conquest of 
Syria. Tyre resisted for seven months. As a warn- 
ing" to other cities Alexander destroyed the ancient 
sea-port, and killed or enslaved its inhabitants. 

Meanwhile Darius sent envoys, humbly asking for peace. 
He offered the hand of his daughter, with half of the empire 
for a dowry. The general Parmenio exclaimed : " I should 
accept, were I Alexander." " And so should I, were I 
Parmenio," replied the king. 

The Egyptians received Alexander with open arms. 
They preferred the Macedonian masters to the Per- 
sians. At the mouth of the Nile Alexander founded 
the sea-port named after him, Alexandria, which still 
stands as an endurino- monument to his fame. Then 

o 

he travelled to the oracle of Zeus in the oasis of 
Siwah, five days' march through the Lybian desert. 
The priest called him the son of Zeus, and prophesied 
that he would conquer the world. After that, Alex- 
ander really believed that he was the son of a 
god, and began to demand divine worship from his 
subjects. 

From Egypt the conqueror marched into the heart 
of the empire, where Darius had gathered an immense 
army. The Persian forces, twenty times more nume- 
rous than the Macedonians, were assembled at Arbela, 
near the site of ancient Nineveh. Their numbers were 
of no avail against the strategic genius of Alexander, 
combined with the discipline of the Macedonian 



ALEXANDER THE GREAT AND HIS SUCCESSORS 129 

veterans. Darius was totally defeated, and fled. 
After the victory of Arbela, the Persian monarchy 
fell to pieces. Some single satraps still tried to hold 
out against Alexander as independent rulers, but were 
easily overcome in a series of campaigns. 

The Babylonians now hailed Alexander as their 
sovereign, and received the Macedonian soldiers in 
triumph into their city. From here Alexander crossed 




Darius in Battle of Issus. 
From a mosaic picture found at Pompeii. 



the Zagros mountains into Persia proper, storming on 
the route some difficult passes which were valiantly 
defended by the natives. Szisa, the capital of Persia, 
and other cities were captured. Enormous treasures 
of gold, silver, and precious stones, estimated at over 
thirty million pounds sterling, fell into his hands. 

Conquest of the Eastern Provinces, and of India. — 
After a few months' rest Alexander set out in pursuit 
of Darius, whom he wished formally to renounce his 
claims to the crown. A faithless satrap murdered the 
unfortunate king just before Alexander caught up with 



G.H. 



I30 ANCIENT HISTORY 

him. Alexander continued his march through what 
is now Afghanistan, crossed the Hindukush moun- 
tains, and penetrated north beyond the Persian 
boundaries into the land of the nomadic Scythians 
(now Russian Turkestan). There he built a fortified 
city called the " Farthest Alexandria." Although he 
had now been campaigning under incredible hardships 
for six years, his ambition gave him no rest. He led 
his veterans across the passes of the Himalaya into 
India, and subjected the Punjab. When he wished 
to press eastward beyond the Hyphasis river, his 
troops flung down their arms, and refused to advance 
another foot. None of them had toiled so incessantly, 
and risked their lives so constantly, as their young 
commander. Yet they felt that a still further cam- 
paign into unknown lands was beyond their strength. 
Since the soldiers kept him from pressing on eastward, 
Alexander wanted at least to enlarge his dominions 
in other directions. So he marched south, down the 
Indus valley. On the way many warlike tribes were 
subjugated. While storming a fort at the head of his 
soldiers, Alexander received a dangerous wound in 
his breast. In a few weeks it was healed, and he was 
eager for new adventures. At the mouth of the Indus 
he divided his forces. The greater part was to sail 
over the Indian Ocean, and through the Persian Gulf, 
to open a new sea route from Babylonia to India. 
Alexander himself led a smaller, picked detachment 
through modern Beluchistan. Their march lay through 
some of the dreariest deserts on earth, which even to- 
day are not well known to geographers. Two months 
in this wilderness cost the lives of two-thirds of his men. 



ALEXANDER THE GREAT AND HIS SUCCESSORS 131 

The Last Two Years of Alexander. — Alexander now 
began to organize the government of his conquests. 
His plans were of a magnitude beyond the thoughts 
of any man who had lived before him. He wished 
to found a new civilization by mixing Greek and 
Persian elements. The East and the West were to 
form one huge nation under his rule. He had already 
founded many cities, and settled them with Greek or 
Macedonian veterans. To quicken the mixing of 
races, he married a Persian princess, and told ten 
thousand of his soldiers to take Asiatic wives. His 
military campaigns had all been combined with the 
opening of new routes for trade, and with scientific 
exploration. Aristotle received from his pupil rich 
collections of plants, minerals, and other objects for 
scientific study, which had been gathered in all 
the countries between the Mediterranean and the 
Hyphasis. 

His Death (323 b.c). — All these activities and 
schemes for the building up of a new world were not 
enough to satisfy Alexander. He also planned to 
carry his arms westward, and to add Italy and 
Northern Africa to his dominions. One may wonder, 
indeed, how much more he would have changed the 
course of history, had not his career ended, in 323 B.C., 
at Babylon. He had caught a fever while exploring 
the route for a ship canal from the lower Euphrates to 
the Persian Gulf. Instead of restinof he nep"lected 
the sickness, and continued to work, thus bringing 
on his early death. With him departed the most 
daring, perhaps altogether the greatest spirit in all 
history. 



132 ANCIENT HISTORY 

Results of Alexander's Conquests. — Alexander's plan 
of hellenizing Asia was partly realized. The Greek 
language for centuries after was spoken by the ruling 
classes from India to Italy. Many centres of Greek 
learning grew up in the East. Greek merchants 
hereafter traded regularly with India, where they 
became acquainted with Chinese silk. The silk trade, 
which assumed large proportions during the Roman 
empire, formed the first link between China and the 
West. The effect of Alexander's conquests on Greece 
was unfortunate. A large part of her population was 
drained from the country and scattered over the East. 
Greece sank into a small province of the Macedonian 
empire. Alexandria took the place of Athens as the 
centre of Greek learning. 

The Successors of Alexander. — Confusion and discord 
followed the death of Alexander. No one of his 
generals was strong enough to hold the empire 
together. Yet they could not agree how to divide 
it. Of the various kingdoms founded on the ruins 
of the Empire, Egypt had the longest separate exist- 
ence. A new dynasty, the Ptolemies, founded by one 
of Alexander's generals, established their capital at 
Alexandria. They were great patrons of learning, 
literature, and art. By their help, Alexandria became 
the centre of the later Greek civilization. Macedonia 
also remained an independent power, until it was 
conquered by the Romans. Several other states 
flourished in Western Asia, until they also were 
absorbed in the Roman empire. 



CHAPTER XI 

HISTORY OF ROME TO THE FIRST PUNIC WAR 

Geography of Ancient Italy. — Before the rise of 
Rome, Italy was divided into many separate districts. 
The Po valley belonged to the Gauls, who conquered 
most of northern Italy about 500 b.c. The land 
between the Adriatic sea and the Alps was occupied 
by the Veneti, and was named Venetia. The western 
part of central Italy, known as Etruria, belonged to 
the Etrttscans. They were a powerful, civilized 
nation, whose rule at one time extended well into 
southern Italy. The Romans were for a time 
governed by Etruscan kings, and many parts of 
early Roman religion and architecture were of 
Etruscan origin. South of the Tiber lay the district 
of Latumi, the inhabitants of which were called 
Latins. The Romans spoke Latin, the language of 
this district, of which they were originally a small 
tribe. The mountainous regions east and south of 
Latium were inhabited by various warlike shepherd 
tribes, of which the Samnites in Samnium were the 
strongest. Southern Italy was known as Great 
Greece, because it was in the hands of the Greeks. 
The island of Sicily was divided between the Greeks, 



134 ANCIENT HISTORY 

who occupied the eastern part, and the Carthaginians^ 
who held the harbors of the west coast. 

Roman Religion. — The Romans were polytheists. 
They had many religious ceremonies, which they 
observed carefully. Their chief god was Jtipiter, 
god of the sky. Mars,' the war god, stood in high 
honor. The month of March was named after him. 
Janus was the god of beginnings and ends ; hence the 
month of January, with which the year began, was 
sacred to him. The Romans also worshipped their 
ancestors, whose tablets or altars were put up in every 
house. Certain priests, called Azigurs, foretold the 
future by observing signs, or omens, which revealed 
the will of the gods. The omens were often sought 
by looking at birds, and the decisions of the priests 
were then called auspices {au = bird, spice = look). 
These ancient terms (augur, as a verb, omen, and 
auspices) are still common English expressions. 

In later times the religions of Greece and Egypt 
were accepted by the Romans, and flourished together 
with the national faith until paganism was driven out 
by Christianity. 

Legends about early Roman History. — When Rome 
had become a world power, poets and historical 
writers invented stories about the foundation and 
early fortunes of the city. It was founded — so 
they said — in 753 B.C. by Romulus, the son of the 
war god Mars. Seven kings ruled over the city 
until 510 B.C., when the last one was driven out, 
and a republic was established. The reigns of the 
kings are described in detail, but all these stories 
are mythical. 




I T A L Y 

BEFORE THE GROWTH OF 
THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 



Scale of Miles 



50 25 50 100 150 



10 East of Greenwich 



StanfyrdiGeog' Estaif, London. 



136 ANCIENT HISTORY 

The Beginnings of Rome. — The real date of the 
foundation of Rome is unknown. The town beoan 
as a small Latin settlement on the Tiber, and grew 
slowly, until it was the strongest city in Latium. 
Its government was a patriarchal monarchy, almost 
exactly like that described in the Greek poems of 
Homer. 

The Republican Government. — About 510 b.c. king 
Tarquinius, an Etruscan, was driven out of Rome, 
and a republic was established in place of the 
monarchy. The chief magistracy was given to two 
conszds, who were elected for one year by the popular 
assembly. The latter could also decide laws proposed 
to it by the magistrates. The Senate or council of 
elders {sen = old) consisted of the heads of noble 
families. It could only advise the consuls, but could 
not force them to obey. 

The purpose of having two consuls was that one 
should check the other, somewhat as the two kings 
did in Sparta. An ambitious magistrate was pre- 
vented by his colleague from attempting to make 
himself king or tyrant. But the divided control of 
affairs had also some disadvantao-es. Public busi- 
ness was often delayed, because the two consuls 
could not agree about their policy. Such delays 
were dangerous in war time, especially in the face 
of an able enemy. Therefore the Romans made 
the office of dictator, a position which conferred 
absolute power on its holder. In times of public 
danger, a dictator was appointed by the consuls. 
He remained sole ruler until the danger was over, 
but never longer than six months. 



HISTORY OF ROME TO THE FIRST PUNIC WAR 137 

Classes in Early Rome. — During- the first centuries 
of the repubhc there were two classes in Rome. The 
patricians, or nobles, resembled the nobles in Athens 
before the reforms of Solon. They kept all public 
offices for themselves. The plebeians were excluded 
from office. Most of them were poor people. The 
old law of debt was the same in Rome as in Athens. 
During the wars, which followed the expulsion of the 
kings, many poor plebeians fell into debt, and were 
treated as slaves by their creditors. 

Secession of the Plebeians ; Appointment of Tribunes 
for the Plebs. — The poor people at last grew despe- 
rate and emigrated from Rome to a place called the 
'Sacred Mount,' where they intended to build a new 
city (494 B.C.). The patricians now yielded to the 
demands of the lower class, rather than to have Rome 
ruined by the loss of its working population. The 
oppressive debts were cancelled. Officers called 
Tribunes of the Plebs were chosen, whose duty was 
to protect the plebeians against injustice. The tri- 
bunes could veto { = forbid) any law, and stop any 
punishment which was unjust to the plebeians. 
The tribunes were declared sacred, and any one 
who tried to interfere with their work, could be 
put to death. 

Laws of the Twelve Tables (450 b.c). — The tribunes 
used their power in a constant struggle to increase 
the political rights of the plebs. They soon recog- 
nized that justice could not be obtained from the 
patrician consuls, so long as the law was unwritten. 
The magistrates often rendered arbitrary and unfair 
decisions, without fear of being held to account. 



138 ANCIENT HISTORY 

because no one knew what the proper law really 
was. For over ten years the patricians resisted 
every effort of the tribunes to have the laws codi- 
fied. At last commissioners were sent to Greece, to 
study the laws of Solon, and other codes. Then ten 
men, called Decemvirs {decern =\o\ vzr=msLn), were 
appointed to draw up a code of laws. After nearly 
two years' labor the code was finished and inscribed 
on twelve copper tables, which were set up in the 
Forum (market place) ; 450 B.C. The Roman school 
boys had to learn the laws of the twelve tables by 
heart. 

Continued Struggle of the Plebeians for Political 
Equality. — As Rome grew in size and wealth, the 
influence of the plebeians increased steadily. Many 
of them became rich through trade, and had just 
as much interest in the government as the noble 
patricians. They now demanded to share equally 
with the latter in all political privileges. In 444 B.C. 
they succeeded in getting admitted to the consular 
power. But the patricians first diminished the 
importance of the office, and changed its name for 
that of 'Military Tribunes with Consular Power! 
At the same time the new office of Censor was 
created. Only a patrician could be elected to the 
censorate. The Censor took the census every five 
years ; he appointed or degraded the senators, pre- 
pared the budget, and superintended public buildings. 
He also guarded public morality, and could punish 
citizens for immoral conduct. 

For about half a century the plebeians remained 
satisfied with these constitutional changes. Then the 



HISTORY OF ROME TO THE FIRST PUNIC WAR 139 

struggle was renewed. The patricians defended them- 
selves by diminishing still more the authority of the 
consuls. The judicial functions were put into the hands 
of new magistrates who had to be patricians. Then, 
in 366 B.C., the first plebeian consul was elected. 
The plebeians continued to demand complete equality, 
until all offices, including the censorate, were thrown 
open to them. By the year 300 B.C. this long political 
struCTorle had come to an end. The distinction between 
patricians and plebeians gradually was forgotten. 

Wars with the Etruscans; Sack of Rome by the Gauls. — 
It has been stated above, that the Etruscans had once 
been masters over Latium, and had even ruled in 
Rome. The contests between Romans and Etruscans 
continued for a long time. The turning point in the 
war came with the capture of Veiiy a fortified city, 
which the Romans had besieged for ten years 
(396 B.C.). The loss of this stronghold broke the 
Etruscan power. The Romans now took one city 
after another, until all Etruria fell under their 
dominion. 

Six years after the fall of Veii, Rome itself was in 
danger of being destroyed for ever. The Gauls came 
south from the Po valley on a plundering expedition. 
At the river Allia, near Rome, they totally defeated 
and scattered the Roman army sent to stop their 
advance (390 B.C.). Before the panic-stricken popu- 
lation could organize a defence, the barbarian hordes 
were already plundering and burning the city. Only 
a ransom of a thousand pounds of gold prevented the 
victors from razing the whole city to the ground. 
The public records were burned during this disaster, 



I40 ANCIENT HISTORY 

so that the early history of Rome can never be fully 
known. 

Favorable Greographical Position of Rome. — When the Gauls 
had marched away, many of the poorer people were dis- 
heartened at the big task of rebuilding their ruined homes. 
They proposed to move to the site of Veii, and to establish 
there a new Rome. Had their wishes prevailed, the world 
would never have bowed under the rule of their descendants. 
The position of Rome was an essential factor in the growth 
of her power. The city limits could expand freely in all 
directions, to make room for the growing population. The 
Tiber afforded direct connection with the sea, where a 
commercial port, Ostia, was already springing up. A third 
advantage was the central position of Rome on the Italian 
peninsula. When she was threatened by enemies from 
several sides, as repeatedly happened, she always had the 
advantage of inner lines. Her armies could strike in all 
directions from the central stronghold, and so prevent the 
enemies from combining. The fourth advantage for the 
conquest of Italy lay in the uniform configuration of that 
peninsula. In contrast to Greece, which is split up by 
mountains into isolated districts, Italy forms a compact 
country. 

Causes of the Roman Conquests. — The Romans are so often 
spoken of as a race of conquerors, that their history is easily 
misunderstood. The victors of Veii did not at first intend 
to annex all Etruria, and the conquerors of Etruria did not 
deliberately subjugate all Italy. Nearly all of the Roman 
wars were necessary, either for immediate self-defence or to 
forestall inevitable future attacks. Roman annals do not 
record a single campaign which was so unprovoked as the 
wars of Alexander the Great. Rome rose supreme over 
the Western World, because her armies and her laws were 
better than those of many rivals who tried to crush her. 

Roman Character. — Love of liberty, which dis- 
tinguished the Greeks so markedly from the Orientals, 



HISTORY OF ROME TO THE FIRST PUNIC WAR 141 

was strong also in the Roman hearts. But here it 
was coupled with a spirit of obedience, of discipline, 
and of reverence for authority. Among the Roman 
citizens there was no trace of that flightiness which 
ruined the Athenians, Like the Chinese the Romans 
laid special stress on filial piety, on exact observance 
of ceremonies, and on the maintenance of old tradi- 
tions. Many institutions of modern China, which 
seem so strange to the Westerner, would appear quite 
natural to a Roman of the early Republic. It has 
been mentioned that ancestor worship was generally 
practised. The father had absolute authority over 
his whole family. He could even put his son to death 
for disobedience. The Romans always were anxious 
that all business, public or private, should be done 
in due form, in exact accordance with the law. The 
finest Roman virtue was a noble sense of duty, espe- 
cially in public affairs. Roman history tells many 
stories of that spirit of self-sacrifice by which the 
Japanese now are making their nation great. 

The supreme value of all the above qualities for 
a military nation is readily understood. Personal 
bravery was taken for granted in every self-respecting 
Roman. The word ' virtue,' which now desienates 
any good quality, meant at first bravery, and it was 
derived from vzr ( = man). Bravery, therefore, was the 
quality natural to a Roman man. 

In their dealings with each other, the Romans were 
truthful and honest. Toward foreigners, however, 
whom they despised, they were guilty of trickery and 
bad faith. They were also apt to be cruel and unjust 
to conquered peoples. 



142 ANCIENT HISTORY 

The Roman Military System. — Every Roman citizen 
was a soldier in the national force. In early times 
the citizens supplied their own military equipment, 
and supported themselves during a campaign. During 
the arduous siege of Veii, the soldiers were paid 
out of the public treasury, and this custom after- 
wards became fixed. The unit of a Roman army 
was the famous Legion. The Roman generals often 
changed and improved the legion. At its best, it 
consisted of over 6000 men, mostly infantry, supported 
by cavalry, artillery, and engineers. The soldiers 
were trained by a severe course of exercises, including 
running and swimming. During a campaign in the 
enemy's country, a fortified camp was built every 
niorht. 

Having now learned what natural causes underlay 
the Roman conquests, and by what qualities the 
Romans were especially fitted for the task of uniting 
the Western World under one government, we shall 
proceed to follow briefly the victorious career of the 
legions. 

The Conquest of Italy. — Within a century and a 
quarter after the battle of the Allia the Romans were 
masters over all Italy. The details of this conquest 
are stories of almost ceaseless warfare. Several times 
the Roman armies were defeated, and dictators were 
appointed to preserve the safety of the republic. The 
most determined foes of Rome were the Samnites. 
In bravery and military skill they were equal to the 
Romans, but they lacked the wise political guidance 
which Rome had from her senate. It was of no 
avail that the Samnite leaders ranged nearly all Italy, 



HISTORY OF ROME TO THE FIRST PUNIC WAR 143 

including Greeks, Etruscans, and Gauls, against the 
common enemy. Rome triumphed over their united 
forces, and made herself supreme over the peninsula. 
The War with Pyrrhus. — The wealthy city of 
Tarentum still retained its independence. When 
the Tarentines saw their trade threatened by- the 
appearance of Roman war galleys in the Adriatic, 




Pyrrhus. 



they deliberately provoked a war with Rome, and 
called king Pyrrhus of Epirus to their assistance. 
Pyrrhus was a cousin of Alexander the Great. He 
wished to give proof of his military genius by erecting 
an empire in the West, which should rival Alexander's 
eastern dominion. In 280 B.C. he defeated the Romans 
in the battle of Heraclea. The legions long held their 
own, but were confused by the war elephants of Pyr- 
rhus, and then broken by the charge of the phalanx. 
Pyrrhus recognized that the Roman legionaries were 



144 ANCIENT HISTORY 

better than his Greek soldiers. "Had I su-ch soldiers," 
he said, " I could conquer the world." In the follow- 
ing year he won another victory, but with such 
appalling losses that he could not follow up his 
advantage. When he fought once more, in 275 B.C., 
at Beneventum, he was badly defeated. Giving up 
all hopes of success, he withdrew to his kingdom 
across the Adriatic, thus leaving the Romans free to 
complete their conquest of Italy. 



CHAPTER XII 

FROM THE FIRST PUNIC WAR TO THE DESTRUCTION 
OF CARTHAGE 

Carthage. — Where the African coast projects nearest 
to Sicily, the Phoenicians founded the colony of 
Carthage, during the ninth century B.C. Five 
centuries later, when Phoenician power in the East 
had already declined, Carthage was the commercial 
centre of the Mediterranean. In wealth and in sea 
power it was superior to Rome. The Carthaginian 
navy controlled the sea from Sicily to the Strait of 
Gibraltar. Western Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, and the 
Spanish coast were all occupied by the soldiers and 
traders of Carthage. Their African realm extended 
along the coast, and included most of what is now 
Tunis, Alo-eria, and Morocco. 

Causes of the Punic Wars. — Rome and Carthaee 
were two rival powers, both expanding, and both 
needing for their growth the command of the Medi- 
terranean. So long as the Punic galleys lorded it 
over the sea, Rome could not feel secure on her own 
shores, and Roman merchants could extend their 
foreign trade only by permission of their African 
competitors. The ill-feeling which thus naturally 

G.H. K 



146 ANCIENT HISTORY 

sprang up between the two states was increased to 
hatred by their differences in race, language, and 
religion. 

First Punic ^ War (264-241). — In the year 264 B.C. 
the Romans occupied the city of Messana, on the 
pretext of helping some friends against the king of 
Syracuse. Messana was already held by a Cartha- 
ginian garrison, and the Roman attack was therefore 
the signal for war. At first the fighting was confined 
to Sicily. The Roman legions won several victories 
over the Punic mercenary armies, but no decided 
advantage could be gained without a fleet. As soon 
as the Romans recognized the need of a strong navy, 
they at once showed their energy by building a fleet 
of one hundred and twenty war galleys within a few 
months. They fitted each ship with a movable 
bridge, which could be thrown on to the enemy's 
vessel, so that the two were locked together. The 
fighting thus was made like a land battle, and the 
Carthaginian sailors lost the advantage of their 
superior seamanship. The new fleet engaged the 
enemy off the promontory of Mylae, on the northern 
coast of Sicily, 260 B.C. By the new tactics the 
Carthaginians were completely defeated. 

The Romans now expected to end the war. 
The consul Regulus did indeed almost destroy a 
Punic fleet, which tried to stop his landing in Africa. 
His army advanced on Carthage, and the terrified 
citizens were ready to make peace. But Regulus set 
such humiliating terms, that the Carthaginians were 

^ ' Punic,' probably a shorter form of ' Phoenician,' means the same as 
Carthaginian. 



TO THE DESTRUCTION OF CARTHAGE 147 

roused to a supreme effort in defence of their country. 
Regulus and most of his army were captured. After 
this Punic success the war was waged for fourteen 
years longer with varying fortunes. The Romans 
lost four large fleets by storms. A hundred thousand 
men are reported to have been drowned in one of 
these disasters. For six years the Romans did not 
dare to attempt naval war; because they believed that 
the sea-god was angry with them. 

During the last period of the war a great general, 
Hamilcar Barcas, commanded the Punic army in 
Sicily. He steadily beat back the consuls sent against 
him. At last wealthy patriots in Rome built a new 
fleet out of private funds. With this armament the 
consul won a decisive victory at the Aegatian Islands, 
in 241. A treaty of peace was now made, by which 
the Carthaginians gave up Sicily, and paid a large 
war indemnity. Sicily became the first province of 
the Roman republic. 

Events between the First and the Second Punic War. — 
Both parties to the treaty 'of 241 knew that the peace 
was only temporary, and both made every effort to 
strengthen themselves for a second struggle. 

The Carthaginians were in terrible danger through 
a revolt of the mercenary troops. When all seemed 
lost, and Carthage itself was held in close siege by 
the rebels, Hamilcar Barcas suddenly put down the 
insurrection. Then he re-established the authority of 
his government throughout the dependencies, and 
made good the loss of Sicily by conquering the greater 
part of Spain. There he trained a fine army, and 
enriched his treasury from the silver mines. 



ANCIENT HISTORY 



amono- the world's g-reatest commanders 



The Barcas family is remarkable in hisfory for 
having produced four eminent generals. The three 
sons of Hamilcar all followed in their father's foot- 
steps, and the oldest of them, Hannibal, is ranked 

He took 
charo-e of the 
Spanish forces in 

211 B.C. 

The Romans 
took Sardinia and 
Corsica from the 
Carthaginians, 
while^ the latter 
were helpless on 
account of the re- 
bellion of the mer- 
cenaries. In this 
hio-h-handed and 
dishonorable way 
Rome secured un- 
disputed control 
of her western sea 
front. At the 
same time she put down some piratical tribes beyond 
the Adriatic, and was acknowledged as suzerain 
over the islands in that sea. The northern fron- 
tier was extended to the Alps by the methodical 
subjection of the Gauls, whose country was organized 
as the province of Cisalpine Gaul} The beginning of 
the second Punic war therefore found Roman power 
extended in all directions. 

1 Oj=this side of; cis alpine = \\\\?, side of the Alps. 




ISO ANCIENT HISTORY 

Second Punic War (218-201). — Hannibal had as a 
boy promised his father that he would devote his life 
to revenge against Rome. This vow he fulfilled, and 
proved himself the most terrible antagonist that Rome 
ever had to face. 

In 218 B.C. he led a picked army across the Pyrenees 
and the Western Alps into the Po valley. The diffi- 
culties of the march were such, that the Romans did 
not even consider its possibility. Its accomplishment 
is justly praised as one of the most wonderful feats in 
military annals. The Romans were taken by surprise. 
Two consuls hurried north with all available forces, 
but were both beaten by the Punic commander. The 
victor employed the winter in organizing a rebellion of 
the Gauls, and in filling the ranks of his army with 
60,000 of these welcome allies. In the spring he 
again surprised the Romans by a remarkable march, 
which brought him between the defending army and 
the capital. When the consul followed him southward 
in hot pursuit, he prepared an ambush at Lake Trasi- 
menus, 217, and slaughtered the Roman army almost 
to the last man. The people of Rome were terrified, 
and broke the bridges over the Tiber, expecting an 
immediate attack on the city. Hannibal, however, 
passed by Rome, with the intention of inciting the 
tribes of Southern Italy to rebellion. Fabius Maximus 
was appointed dictator. His method of warfare, since 
then called Fabian, was to annoy Hannibal by frequent 
attacks, while avoiding a pitched battle. The people 
called Fabius the ' Delayer.' They soon grew im- 
patient, and demanded a more active policy. Their 
wish was carried out by the consuls for the year 216. 



TO THE DESTRUCTION OF CARTHAGE 151 

They fought a decisive battle at Cannae in south- 
eastern Italy. Never did a commander use his genius 
with more terrible effect than did Hannibal at Cannae. 
With his smaller army he killed nearly all of 80,000 
Roman soldiers, and captured most of the rest. The 
Samnites and the rich city of Capua now joined 
Hannibal. 

In this national crisis the senate displayed wonder- 
ful courage and calmness. New legions were levied, 
consisting of the older and of the youngest men, 
and in part even of slaves, Hannibal, on the contrary, 
was not properly supported by the Carthaginian 
government, and did not get sufficient recruits and 
supplies. Gradually but steadily the Roman com- 
manders pushed him back. In 211 they re-took 
Capua, and cruelly punished its citizens. When 
Hannibal's brother, Hasdrubal, brought a fresh army 
from Spain, he was met at the river Metaurus, 
north-east from Rome, by a superior force, and 
completely defeated. His head was thrown into 
Hannibal's camp. The great commander steadfastly 
fought on in Southern Italy, until he was called to 
the defence of his home country. 

The consul Scipio had invaded Africa and threatened 
Carthao^e. Hannibal could not long- avert the ultimate 
defeat which he had foreseen after his brother's death 
at the Metaurus. In 202 Scipio gained a decisive 
victory at Zama, near Carthage, and so ended the war. 
To get peace, Carthage had to give up Spain and all 
the Mediterranean islands. In addition, she had to pay 
a heavy yearly tribute, surrender her navy, and agree 
not to declare any war without the consent of Rome. 



152 



ANCIENT HISTORY 



Conquest of Macedonia and of Asia Minor. — The king 
of Macedonia sent some troops to help Hannibal in 
the second Punic war. For this and some other 
offences the Roman Senate declared war. Macedonia 
was soon compelled to acknowledge the supremacy 
of Rome. The friendship of Hannibal also proved 

fatal to Antiochus the 
Great of Syria. This 
ruler received Hannibal 
at his court, after the 
latter had been forced 
to flee from Carthage. 
Antiochus also started 
to extend his dominions 
into Europe, thus tres- 
passing on Macedonia, 
a Roman subject state. 
A Roman army soon 
drove him out of Greece, 
followed him into Asia 
Minor, and defeated him 
in the battle of Mag- 
nesia, 190 B.C. Most of 
Asia Minor was given 
to king Eumenes of Pergamus, a friend and ally of 
the senate, which thus avoided the trouble of governing 
so distant a province. Hannibal finally took poison, 
to avoid falling into the hands of the Romans. 

Greece had fallen under Roman rule as part of 
Macedonia. When the Greeks revolted against the 
unjust treatment of their new masters, the Roman 
consul Mummius suppressed the rebellion in blood. 




SciFio Africanus Major (Bernoulli). 



TO THE DESTRUCTION OF CARTHAGE 



153 



Corinth, then the richest city in Greece, was razed 
to the ground, 146 B.C. 

Third Punic War (149-146). — The year 146 is notable 
not only for the final blow to Greek liberty, but it marks 
also the establishment of Roman government in Africa. 
Three years earlier the Carthaginians had been driven 
into war by the repeated insults and depredations 
of a neighboring African king. Although the Car- 
thaginians acted only 
in self-defence, the 
Roman senate at once 
accused them of hav- 
ing broken the treaty 
of 201, and sent two 
armies against them. 
Feeling- too weak for 
a contest, the Cartha- 
ginians humbly asked 
for peace on any con- 
ditions. At the com- 
mand of the consul 
they delivered up all 
their weapons and 
war-ships. But when they thus had given away 
all their means of defence, the consul ordered 
them to abandon Carthage, and to start a new 
settlement ten miles from the sea. On receipt 
of this order the meekness of the Carthaginians 
changed to the courage of despair. The whole 
population, irrespective of age, sex, or rank, devoted 
itself to the defence of the city. The women cut 
off their long hair, to braid it into bow strinos. A 




Antiochus the Great. 



154 ANCIENT HISTORY 

new navy was built in the inner harbor, and the 
Roman attack was repulsed. For two years the be- 
sieging army was unable to take the city. In 146 
the consul Scipio assumed the command. He con- 
ducted the siege with great energy and skill, and 
finally captured the city. By a conflagration, which 
lasted seventeen days, the hated rival of Rome was 
converted into a heap of ruins. 

Provincial Administration. — In addition to Sicily, 
Sardinia with Corsica, and Gaul south of the Alps, 
Rome now possessed also the provinces of Spain, 
Africa, Macedonia, and Greece. The provincials 
were treated as conquered people, without political 
rights. By special agreement, many cities retained 
the privilege of local self-government, but they were 
not represented in the Roman provincial adminis- 
tration. At the head of a province stood a proconsul 
or a propraetor, whose term of office was usually 
one year. During his rule, he enjoyed unlimited 
authority. The position soon was abused for every 
kind of extortion from the provincials. The taxes 
were farmed out by the senate to the highest bidders, 
usually the wealthy nobles. These sent their agents, 
called publicans, to collect the taxes from the people. 
The publicans soon were more feared and hated 
than any other class of men in the provinces. 
Through them, and through the spoils of war, 
enormous wealth poured from the conquered countries 
into Rome. 



CHAPTER XIII 

THE DECAY OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC AND THE 
GROWTH OF ONE-MAN POWER 

Introduction: Political and Social Condition of Rome 
after the Punic Wars. — The republican constitution of 
Rome was made for the government of a small city 
state. When the greater part of the Mediterranean 
countries fell under the sway of Rome, her municipal 
government proved quite inadequate for the task 
of ruling so vast an empire. The earliest political 
result of the foreign wars was, that the senate 
assumed almost exclusive control of the orovernment. 
The popular assemblies could not understand the 
difficult questions of foreign policy, and were glad to 
leave their settlement to the senate, which was made 
up of experienced statesmen and generals. The 
government thus fell into the hands of a rich aristo- 
cracy, whose members soon considered all govern- 
ment offices as a monopoly of their small caste. 
The forms of the old republic continued unchanged. 
Popular assemblies still met, elected magistrates, and 
decided laws. But the mass of the people had 
lost their former patriotism. They no longer took a 
real interest in the welfare of the state. They cast 



156 ANCIENT HISTORY 

their votes for those candidates who pleased them 
best by gifts of grain and of free theatrical shows. 

This corruption of the Roman people was the 
consequence of war and conquest. During the devas- 
tations of the Hannibalic wars the Italian farmer class 
was ruined. The many victories, which followed soon 
after, threw vast numbers of slaves into the hands 
of the richer Romans. In Sicily, for example, slave 
labor was so cheap, that the owners of estates worked 
their sick slaves to death, rather than to care for 
their recovery. It cost them less to buy a new 
slave, than to provide humane treatment for the old 
one. This cheap labor enabled contractors from 
Sicily and Africa to supply the Roman market with 
grain at a price considerably lower than the cost 
of raising grain on an Italian freehold. Hence the 
farmers were forced to sell their land to rich nobles, 
and to look for some means of livelihood in Rome. 
The capital became filled with a numerous mob of 
poor people. Many of them had no other support 
than the public donations of grain and the private 
largesses given by nobles who wished to buy votes 
for election to some office. 

In the senatorial class luxury and the greed for 
wealth increased steadily. The provinces were 
considered as storehouses of plunder for the enrich- 
ment of Roman governors. It was a common saying 
that three years of proconsulship were required to 
make a man's fortune. The first year's plunder would 
pay the debts made in bribery for getting the office. 
The second year's gain would suffice to corrupt the 
judges in case of a trial for maladministration ; while 



THE DECAY OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC 157 

the profits of the third year would make the governor 
a rich man. 

To sum up, the people were divided into two 
extreme classes, the few rich and the many poor. 
The rich controlled the government for their own 
profit. The poor mob used their votes chiefly as a 
means of procuring food and amusement. The distress 
of the masses led to revolutions in Rome, and the 
greed of the senatorial class ruined the provinces. 

Reforms of the Gracchi. — The brothers Tiberius and 
Caius Gracchus succeeded In making some temporary 
reforms during the years 133 to 123 B.C. As tribunes 
of the people they enforced laws forbidding any one to 
hold excessive amounts of public land, and distributing 
land among poor citizens. They also provided for 
many needy people by settling colonies of them in the 
provinces. As the measures of the Gracchi endangered 
the political power of the senatorial class, the latter 
offered violent opposition, which finally led to civil 
war. Both of the brothers met their death while 
fighting for the cause of the people. 

Civil War of Marius and Sulla. — The reforms of the 
Gracchi afforded only short relief from the evils which 
were corrupting the Roman state. The senatorial 
class sank more and more into the shameless methods 
of bribery at home and of extortion in the provinces. 
The selfishness of the individual senators and officials, 
who were all intent on their private interests, weak- 
ened the power of the government as a whole. On 
the other hand, single men of ability rose to an 
influence which had been unknown in the honest times 
of the earlier republic. 



158 



ANCIENT HISTORY 



The principal tool of these leaders was the army. 
The Roman citizens had lost their martial valor under 
the enervating influence of luxury and idleness. They 
preferred to shift the hardships of foreign campaigns 
on to a hired soldiery, levied in all the provinces of the 
empire. These soldiers had no interest in the welfare 

of Rome, but were per- 
sonally attached to success- 
ful and popular generals. 
They were just as ready to 
follow their general against 
his political enemies in 
Italy as against some re- 
volted tribes in Africa. 

The conditions just out- 
lined developed quite 
gradually. They were in 
full sway during the civil 
war between Marius and 
Sulla, 88-82 B.C. 

Maritcs, the son of a 
day laborer, had risen in 
the ranks of the army to 
be commanding general. 
His military successes made him the idol of the sol- 
diers, and won for him genuine popularity among the 
common people, who always counted him as one of 
themselves. In the years 102 and 10 1 he gained the 
battles of Aquae Sextiae and of Vercellae against the 
Cimbri and Teutones. These barbarian Germans had 
defeated several Roman armies, and threatened Rome 
herself by a descent into Northern Italy. Marius 




SULI.A. 



THE DECAY OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC 159 

literally annihilated their hosts, and earned the tide 
'Saviour of the Country.' On his return to Rome he 
was elected consul for the sixth time, and allied him- 
self with the popular party, with a view to becoming- 
sole ruler in Rome. He failed, however, owing to his 
cruelty and bad management. 

Sulla, the great rival of Marius, belonged to the 
party of the Optimates ( = best ones ; the rich nobles). 
He had risen to fame as a skilful lieutenant of Marius, 
and for independent successes in Asia Minor. Sulla, 
like Marius, 
aimed at the 
control of the 
government. 

In 88 B.C. a 
war broke out 
with Mithri- 
dates, king of 
Pontus, in Northern Asia Minor. Sulla and Marius 
both wished to get the command of the army, because 
each intended thereby to make his party supreme. 
Sulla decided the issue by storming Rome at the head 
of his soldiers, and putting the leaders of the popular 
party to death. Marius was outlawed, and barely 
saved his life. Within a year after Sulla's departure 
for the East, Marius was recalled to head an army 
gathered by his friend Cinna. Rome was stormed for 
a second time. For five days the bands of Marius 
raged in the city, and killed all optimates who had not 
already fled. The property of the slaughtered men 
was confiscated by Marius. Marius and Cinna had 
themselves elected consuls, but Marius died shortly 




Coin of Mithradates VI. the Great King of Pontus. 



i6o ANCIENT HISTORY 

after his triumph. Cinna continued to rule tyrannically 
for three years longer. 

In St^ B.C. Sulla returned to Italy at the head of 
40,000 veteran soldiers. After a year's fighting 
against the forces of the Marian party he entered 
Rome as dictator. He took a terrible revenge for 
the outrages of the popular party. The names of all 
men suggested by his friends were written on a list, 
which was daily hung in the Forum. The victims 
thus proscribed were outlawed, and their property was 
confiscated. ^\^^ proscriptions of Sulla extended from 
Italy even to the provinces. His political enemies 
were butchered by the tens of thousands, until every 
trace of resistance was wiped out in blood. The 
senate confirmed all of Sulla's acts as right and legal, 
and made him dictator for life. After an absolute 
rule of three years he suddenly resigned his dictator- 
ship. The following year (78 B.C.) he died. 

Before treating of the successors of Marius and 
Sulla we must mention a few important events of 
the period. 

Servile Wars in Sicily. — Slavery has never led to 
more injustice and cruelty than during the last century 
of the Roman republic. Its eff"ects on the free popu- 
lation of Italy have already been indicated. The lot 
of the slaves themselves was often terrible beyond 
description. Prisoners of war from all points of the 
compass swelled the number of these unfortunate 
wretches. In Sicily some single estates were worked 
by 20,000 slaves. The overseers took the- strictest 
precautions against revolt. But in the years 134- 
132 B.C. the slaves succeeded in organizing a rebellion, 



I 



THE DECAY OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC i6i 

which was suppressed only after four Roman armies 
had been defeated. A second servile war distracted 
Sicily thirty years later. 

War of the Gladiators. — Gladiators were professional 
fighters who fought for the amusement of the people. 
Large numbers of them were gathered in the training 
schools, where they prepared for the deadly combats 
before the public. In the year 'j'i, several bands of 
these gladiators seized a stronghold on Mount 
Vesuvius, and plundered the country round about. 
They were soon joined by other gladiators and by 
fugitive slaves, until they formed a large army, which 
defied the consular forces for two years. The rebellion 
was finally crushed, and the slaves were killed like 
wild animals. 

Mithridatic Wars (86-64). — Mithridates, king of 
Pontus, was for the Romans a second Hannibal. 
In 88 B.C. he organized a conspiracy throughout Asia 
Minor against the hated Romans. In one night about 
100,000 Italians resident in the East were murdered. 
While Sulla was losing time in party strife, Mithri- 
dates sent an army and fleet into Greece, where most 
of the cities, including Athens, joined his cause. Sulla 
reconquered Greece in two brilliant campaigns, and 
then prepared to attack Mithridates in his Asiatic 
dominions. The latter preferred to make peace, after 
surrendering all territories taken from the Romans, 
and paying a heavy indemnity. A year later the war 
was renewed, and Mithridates defeated the Roman 
propraetor, who had invaded Pontus. The contest 
ended in a treaty, which was a renewal of the first 
peace. In the year 74 the Romans occupied some 

G.H. I. 



i62 ANCIENT HISTORY 

territory claimed by Mithridates as part of his own 
dominions. The latter at once commenced hostilities, 
and defeated one of the consuls by land and sea. But 
he found his match in the other consul, Luadlus, a 
commander of rare ability. Lucullus drove the king" 
out of his own country, and subjected the eastern part 
of Asia Minor in a series of darin^ marches. But he 
was forced to retreat by a mutiny among his own 
soldiers. Mithridates at once pressed forward again, 
and ravaged two Roman provinces. Meanwhile 
Pompey was entrusted with the command in Asia. 
He followed Mithridates as far as the Caucasus 
mountains, but was unable to capture him. The long 
struggle was definitely ended by the death of Mithri- 
dates in 63 B.C. The undaunted king was planning 
an invasion of Italy, when suddenly his own son 
revolted against him. The news broke his proud 
heart. He died by his own hand. 

The Rise of Pompey the Great. — Foremost among the 
young partisans of Sulla was the noble Pompey. 
When the dictator died, Pompey seemed to be the 
natural heir of his power. He conducted an arduous 
campaign in Spain against Sertorius, who had set 
himself up as an independent sovereign in the penin- 
sula. In the course of his Spanish career Pompey 
bore himself more like a prince than a republican 
official. In the government of the province he 
bestowed all places of power on his friends and 
dependents. During the succeeding years his luck 
and his military ability combined to raise him to the 
first place in Rome. He came to Italy just in time to 
finish the war of the gladiators, and so got the 



THE DECAY OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC 163 



credit for the work already accomplished by others. 
Similarly he reaped in the third Mithridatic war the 
fruits of Lucullus' victories. In his Asiatic campaign 
he held by a special law absolute authority over all of 
the East. The year before he had already received 
dictatorial powers over the whole Mediterranean and 
all its coasts, for the purpose of exterminating the 
pirates. After the de- 
struction of Carthaofe 
and Corinth much of 
the world's trade had 
been ruined, and sea- 
men sought in robbery 
the profit which they 
had formerly found in 
legitimate enterprises. 
They gradually formed 
an organized pirate 
government. An im- 
mense fleet scoured the 
Mediterranean for 
booty, and even threat- 
ened Rome with famine by capturing the corn ships. 
Pompey cleared the Mediterranean of the robbers in 
a methodical campaign of only three months. 

When Pompey returned to Rome from the East his 
power seemed irresistible. His ability as a politician, 
however, was of a low order. He was unable to 
accomplish his designs alone. 

The First Triumvirate (60 B.C.). — Two other men, 
Caesar and Crassus, joined Pompey in an agreement 
called the first triu7nvirate {triimt = of three, vir = intn). 




Pompey. 



164 



ANCIENT HISTORY 



The three agreed to help one another in dividing 
up the most influential positions in the government. 
Crassus owed his place entirely to his fabulous wealth. 
Julius Caesar was born of an old, noble family in 
the year 100 b.c. Through his early marriage with 




Julius Caesak. 



the daughter of Cinna he became allied with the 
popular party. Sulla therefore wished to proscribe 
him, and spared his life only to please his aristocratic 
relatives. After Sulla's death Caesar soon became 
the recognized leader of the popular party. His 
eloquence, his personal charm, and his princely 
liberality won him the favor of the masses. When 



i66 



ANCIENT HISTORY 



the province of Spain was assigned to him as pro- 
praetor, his creditors would not allow him to leave 
Rome until Crassus became surety for his immense 
debts. By wise administration and by profitable wars 
he returned to Rome with ample wealth, and with a 
brilliant reputation as a statesman and a general. He 
was the driving and the guiding force of the trium- 
virate. His two associates reaped only temporary 
advantages from the alliance, while he used it to 
mount to supreme power. 

Conspiracy of Catiline (62 B.C.). — Before tracing the growth 
of one-man power, as shown in the rivahy between Caesar 
and Pompey, any further, we must consider an event which 
illustrates clearly how near its grave the tottering republic 

had sunk. The conspiracy 
of Catiline was an attempt to 
overthrow the government by 
firing the city and assassinat- 
ing most of the officials. The 
conspirators were mostly 
ruined spendthrifts, who in- 
tended to enrich themselves 
by cancelling their debts and 
by confiscating the property 
of their opponents. Catiline 
himself was an infamous 
fellow. He had put his own 
brother's name on the pro- 
scription list of Sulla in order 
to get the estate. The consul 
for the year was Cicero^ a 
noted lawyer and orator. He discovered the whole plot, 
and denounced Catiline before the senate. The conspirators 
fled precipitately to their army in Etruria. In the battle 
fought soon after, most of them, including Catiline, met 




Cicero. 



THE DECAY OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC 167 

their death. Cicero was hailed as the ' father of his 
country.' 

Rivalry between Caesar and Pompey. — The friendship 
between Caesar and Pompey was never quite sincere. 
Each used the other as a tool for his own ends. The 
triumvirs presently divided the administration of the 
provinces. Crassus took the East, where he hoped 
to gain military glory. He found defeat and death in 
a battle against the Parthians. Pompey got Spain. 
He left its government to his subordinates, as he 
wished to stay in Rome, where he might personally 
direct events. Caesar was made proconsul of cis- 
alpine Gaul and of transalpine Gaul (now southern 
France) for ten years. After the death of Crassus 
the two remaining triumvirs became open opponents. 
At first Pompey had the advantage. The optimates 
rallied around him, and the senate ultimately appointed 
him sole consul with dictatorial power. The popular 
party meanwhile remained true to Caesar. 

Caesar's Conquest of Gaul; His Invasions of Germany 
and of Britain. — Caesar advanced his own plans by 
gaining wealth, military experience, and a devoted 
army of veterans in his Gallic campaigns. During his 
proconsulship he carried the Roman boundaries to the 
Rhine and the Atlantic. The Gauls offered obstinate 
resistance. Caesar's own military awnals, his Co7n- 
Tnentaries on the Gallic War, tell in wonderfully clear 
and vivid style of the numerous battles and sieges 
which made barbarian Gaul into the most valuable 
Roman province. 

Caesar secured the boundaries of the new dominions 
by driving a horde of German invaders back across 



i68 ANCIENT HISTORY 

the Rhine, and by twice leading his legions over that 
river into the German forests. By two expeditions 
into Britain, he also inspired the brave dwellers in 
the northern isle with a dread of the Roman name. 

Civil War between Caesar and Pompey (49-46 e.g.). — 
When Caesar's term as proconsul came to an end, the 
Pompeians tried by trickery to deprive him of all 
political power. Caesar's answer was the rapid cross- 
ing of the RzLbicon, a little river dividing Gaul from 
Italy proper. One of the greatest civil wars in history 
was now declared, a war made doubly notable by the 
genius of Caesar. His enemies were superior in 
wealth, in territories, in soldiers, and in ships. But 
before the swiftly-falling strokes of the great general all 
resistance was in vain. Pompey, the senate, and the 
nobles fled precipitately across the Adriatic to Greece. 
Within a few months all Italy gladly recognized 
Caesar's rule. He hurried to Spain and scattered 
the Pompeian forces there, while one of his generals 
took Sicily. Next year, 48 B.C., found Caesar in 
Greece, attacking the main army of Pompey, which 
outnumbered his own two to one. The battle of Pha7'- 
sahts decided Pompey's fate. He fled to Egypt, hotly 
pursued by Caesar. At Alexandria Pompey was 
murdered as he tried to land. Caesar's task was 
by no means ended. He subdued a dangerous revolt 
in Alexandria, marched against a rebel king in Asia 
Minor, and lastly annihilated the Pompeian army in 
Africa. He had now circled all the Mediterranean 
countries in his career of victory. 

Establishment of Caesarism. — Caesar shordy united 
in himself all civil and military offices of importance. 



THE DECAY OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC 169 

He was consul, censor, tribune, dictator. Nominally, 
the republican constitution remained undisturbed. In 
fact, Caesar was absolute monarch, because he con- 
trolled all government action. An autocracy, veiled 
under outward forms of republicanism, has since then 
been called Caesarism. 

Caesar's Reforms. — In his reforms Caesar evinced a 
greatness almost beyond that of his generalship. He 
abolished tax-farminor and established direct taxation 
of the provinces. The extortions of provincial gover- 
nors were stopped. New colonies relieved Rome of 
the dangerous proletariate ( = masses of poor people), 
and hastened the Romanization of the provinces. All 
these and numerous other reforms brouoht a new era 
of peace and prosperity over the empire. What 
Caesar began was later continued by his adopted son 
Octavian, the first emperor. 

Caesar's Death. — There was in Rome a small group 
of misguided men, who still tried to uphold the 
republic. Their leader was Marcus BriiHis, privately 
a friend of Caesar, but his secret enemy in politics. 
Brutus sincerely believed that the republic, and with 
it liberty, could be brought to new life. He did not 
understand that liberty had long ago fled together 
with the ancient civic virtues of the Romans. The 
selfish nobles and the corrupted people were no 
longer fit to govern themselves, much less the world. 
Caesar's personal rule gave offence to the republicans. 
They suspected him of aspiring to the royal crown. 
On March 15, 44 B.C., they assassinated him during a 
session of the senate. 

Estimate of Caesar. — To no man has the title " the 



lyo ANCIENT HISTORY 

Greatest" been so often accorded by historians as to 
Caesar. Certainly no one has left the impress of his 
genius more indelibly on the course of human events. 
His work changed the aspect of the whole Western 
World. When chaos was imminent, he brought 
order. As a statesman he stands second to none. 
Among generals he is the peer of Alexander and of 
Hannibal. His oratory was rivalled only by Cicero. 
As a writer of Latin prose he is still admired by all 
Western classical students. He founded the grandest 
institution yet known to man : the beneficent Roman 
empire over the whole civilized West. The very 
conception of Empire is named after him : he was the 
first imperator (emperor), in German called ' Kaiser,* 
in Russian ' Czar,' words which are both derived 
from 'Caesar.'^ 

The Second Triumvirate. — The immediate conse- 
quence of Caesar's death was a renewal of civil war. 
Out of the struggle the young Octavzan, Caesar's 
adopted son, rose as the strongest. In 43 he 
organized with Marcus Antonius and with Lepidiis, 
both former friends of Caesar, the second triumvirate. 
They professed to have the reorganization of the state 
for their aim. Their real purpose was to divide the 
whole power among themselves. Lepidus, a weak 
man, was soon cast aside. A rivalry ensued, which 
developed into a war of the East, headed by Antony, 
against Italy and the West, commanded by Octavian. 

Battle of Actium (31 b.c). — Antony had fallen in 
love with Cleopatra, the beautiful queen of Egypt. 

1 In Italy and the West Caesar came to be pronounced ' Kaesar,' while 
in the East the name gradually changed to Cesar. 



THE DECAY OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC 171 

She was just as tricky as beautiful, and did what she 
liked with the infatuated Antony. It was said in 
Rome that Antony wished to make Alexandria the 
capital of the empire, and to have Cleopatra as 
his queen. These rumors undermined Antony's 
popularity with the people and the soldiers, and 
strengthened the side of Octavian. The issue was 
decided by the naval battle of Actium, 31 B.C. Cleo- 
patra withdrew in the midst of the contest, and 
Antony's evil spirit drove him to steer his ship after 
hers. The victory made Octavian master of the 
Roman world. Antony committed suicide at Alex- 
andria. Cleopatra also killed herself when she found 
that she could not move Octavian by her personal 
charms. ' 



CHAPTER XIV 
THE ROMAN EMPIRE 

Reign of Augustus (31 b.c. to a.d. 14). — Octavian 
established his government along the lines laid down 
by Caesar. He was careful to avoid all outward show 
of his monarchical power. He liked to call himself the 
' princeps,' or first, of Roman citizens. His distinctive 
titles were Imperator, Augustus, and Caesar. All the 
old republican institutions were retained. The senate 
still passed decrees, the assemblies still elected consuls. 
In short, judging by forms and names only, the 
Romans could regard themselves as free republicans. 
In fact, they were the subjects of the Caesar. The 
few offices of weight, which he did not hold himself, 
he entrusted to men who were the slaves of his 
will. The senate passed only decrees approved by 
Augustus, and the people elected only officers nomi- 
nated by Augustus. 

Nearly the whole of the emperor's long reign was 
a period of profound peace. Since the first struggles 
of the Tiber city against its neighbors, the Romans 
had not enjoyed such a rest. Prosperity returned to 
Italy and to the provinces. 

The abler citizens, who found politics uneventful. 



THE ROMAN EMPIRE 173 

turned their attention to artistic and literary pursuits. 
The Aiio-ustan Ao-e of Latin literature is also called 
its Golden Age. Many of the most notable writers 
in the language were attached to the imperial court. 




Augustus Caesar. 



The historian Livy, the poets Vergil and Ovid, are 
familiar to every Western student. 

Augustus wished to govern well the existing empire, 
rather than to enlarge it by further conquests. In 
the west the Atlantic, in the south the deserts of 
Africa and Arabia, in the east the Euphrates, in the 



174 ANCIENT HISTORY 

north the Russian steppes and the German forests 
formed the natural limits of civilization and of empire. 

The Ge7'i7ians in the north-east were a standing 
menace to the security of Gaul. To strengthen the 
border, Augustus sent generals across the Rhine, 
with a view to making a province of the country 
between the Rhine and the Elbe. The free German 
warriors could not tolerate foreign rule. They anni- 
hilated the Roman legions, as their general Varus 
led them through the forest of Teutoburg (a.d. 9). 
Thereafter the Rhine and the Danube remained the 
north-eastern boundary of the empire. For later 
history this battle of the year nine has a profound 
significance. Through their victory the Germans 
remained wholly Germanic, instead of being roman- 
ized, like the people of Britain, Gaul, and Spain. 
The barbarians of the northern forests kept unchanged 
their strength and their customs. And five centuries 
later these Germans became the dominant race in 
Europe. 

Another event of world-wide importance fell under 
the reign of Augustus. Jesus Christ was born as 
the son of a poor carpenter in Bethlehem, a small 
Jewish town. No contemporary annalist mentioned 
the event. The great religious teacher lived and 
died in local obscurity, known only to a few disciples 
and listeners. 

The Julian Emperors (to a.d. 68). — The four follow- 
ing emperors also belonged to the family of Julius 
Caesar, and are called, together with Augustus, the 
Julian emperors. Tiberius, the step-son of Augustus, 
was a suspicious despot. He gave rewards to 



THE ROMAN EMPIRE 



175 



informers, called delators, for accusing persons of 
trifling offences against the emperor. No one could 
feel sure that the following day might not bring a 
death warrant for a crime which he had never 
committed. Nearly half of the reign was conducted 
by a favorite of Tiberius, Sejanus. He was a low 
fellow, who attained the command of the imperial 
body-guard, called the 
praetoria7is. By intrigue 
and murder Sejanus got 
the whole government 
into his hands. When 
he even plotted to kill 
the emperor, Tiberius 
ordered his execution. 

The last of the Julian 
line was Nero. He 
ruled well as long as 
he followed his teacher, 
the philosopher Seneca. 
But his later reign is 
a story of the foulest 
crimes and insanest 
follies. It was probably by his orders that Rome was 
burned down. Certainly he enjoyed the spectacle of 
the conflagration. To divert the popular anger from 
himself, he accused the new sect of the Christians 
of having laid the fire. The unfortunate Christians 
were nailed to crosses, burned alive, or thrown to 
the wild animals in the amphitheatre. 

The Flavian Emperors (69-96). — After Nero's death 
four emperors were proclaimed by the legions. The 




Tiberius Caesar. 



176 ANCIENT HISTORY 

fourth, Flavins Vespasianus, succeeded in transmitting- 
the throne to his son Titus. Titus had already 
distinguished himself by crushing a revolt of the 
Jews, Jerusalem was destroyed, and the survivors 
were dispersed (a.d. "jo). Titus made himself be- 
loved by his kindness. The people called him 'The 
Delioht of Mankind.' Durinof his short reigfn of 
three years occurred an eruption of the volcano Mt. 
Vesuvius. Two cities, Pompeii and Herculaneu7ny 
were buried by mud and ashes. They have now 
been in part excavated. Their streets and houses 
present a faithful picture of a Roman city under 
the early empire. 

The successor of Titus was his brother Domitian, 
a cowardly, cruel despot. He persecuted the Jews 
and the Christians, because they refused to conform 
with the national religion. Domitian's tyranny weighed 
most heavily on the members of his court and house- 
hold. By some of them he was finally murdered. 

The Five Good Emperors (96-180). — The murderers 
of Domitian raised to the throne an aged senator, 
named Nerva. His rule lasted only two years, but 
it was notable as introducing a century of the 
kindest government, and of almost unbroken peace 
within the empire. Nerva set a splendid example 
to his successor by reducing the taxes, recalling the 
exiles of Domitian's persecution,, and otherwise ad- 
vancino- the oeneral welfare. He left the throne to 
his adopted son Trajan, a Spaniard by birth (98-117). 
Trajan had a spirit resembling that of Caesar. 
He did not bind himself by the defensive policy 
followed since Octavian's reign, but sought glory in 




G.H 



178 ANCIENT HISTORY 

new conquests. The Dacians were becoming danger- 
ous to the empire. Trajan conquered their country, 
and settled it with Roman colonists, the ancestors of 
the modern Roumanians. The Roumanian language 
still resembles Latin quite closely. In the East the 
empire of the Parthians had grown up on the ruins 
of the old Persian monarchy. The Parthians were 
a rude and war-like people. Crassus had been 
defeated and killed by their armies of horsemen. 
Trajan drove them across the Zagros mountains, 
and seized all their western territories down to the 
Persian Gulf. 

Trajan's successor, Hadrian, abandoned those 
eastern countries, and made the Euphrates, which 
offered a stronger line of defence, the Roman 
boundary. Hadrian was a lover of peace, and an able 
administrator. He spent the greater part of his 
reign in inspecting and regulating all the provinces 
of the empire. 

Of the next emperor, Antonimcs Phis, little need 
be said, except this highest praise, that his rule was 
a period of quiet happiness for his subjects. Marcus 
Aiirelius, the last of the five good emperors, was 
a philosopher of the Stoic school. The Stoics 
believed that a grood man should be free from 
passions, kind and devoted to his duty. This doctrine 
Marcus Aurelius practised as a ruler. Though he 
labored incessantly for the benefit of his subjects, 
he had the sorrow of seeing them afflicted by a 
deadly plague. The legions returning from war 
with the Parthians carried the disease to Italy, 
where entire districts were soon depopulated. At 



THE ROMAN EMPIRE 



179 



the same time the Germans broke through the 
defences on the Danube river, and started to plunder 
northern Italy. The imperial philosopher had to 
spend his last years in arduous warfare against the 
barbarians. He died in his military camp on the 
Danube, having succeeded in protecting his people 
from the horrors of invasion. 

A Century of Decline (180-284). — The ravages of the 
plague and the expensive border warfare exhausted 
the resources of the empire. Even the fatherly 





Coin of Antoninus Pius. 



government of Marcus Aurelius was unable to prevent 
various signs of decay. The constant danger from 
the Germans in the north and from the Parthians 
in the east forced the emperors to maintain large 
standing armies. The soldiers gradually got unruly, 
and finally elected their own favorites as emperors. 
Often the legions in different provinces chose different 
imperators, and then the horrors of civil war were 
added to the threats of the barbarians. The empire 
was about to fall to pieces, when the emperor 
AtLrelian (270-275) and his successors again brought 
discipline among the soldiers and order into the realm. 



i8o ANCIENT HISTORY 

The Reign of Diocletian (284-305). — The emperor 
Diocletian abolished the last outward forms of repub- 
licanism, which had been preserved since Augustus. 
He established a court like an oriental monarch at 
Nicomedia, in Asia Minor. To make the government 
more efficient, he divided the empire into four parts, 
each of which had its separate ruler. His three 
colleagues were subordinate to him. This system 
gave vigor and efficiency to the government ; but 
the four separate courts were too heavy a financial 
burden for the empire. 

Reign of Constantine the Great {'S2y2)Z7)- — After the 
death of Diocletian, his system of four rulers soon 
led to rivalries and civil war among the emperors. 
After some years of conflict, Constantine the Great 
emerged as victor over all rivals. He governed 
as sole emperor, but otherwise he continued and 
perfected the administrative reforms of Diocletian. 
The empire was redivided into 116 provinces. All 
officials were appointed through the emperor, and 
were responsible to him. They usually got their 
first appointments by examinations in law, and then 
advanced through regular grades. Constantine made 
Christianity the state religion, tolerating, however, 
the pagan creeds. He chose Byzantium as the 
capital of his realm, and gave it the new name of 
Constantinople ( = city of Constantine). Rome sank 
to the level of a large provincial town. 

Division of the Empire (a.d. 395). — Since the reign 
of Diocletian the East and West had already been 
divided for purposes of administration. The emperors 
simply recognized the natural differences existing 



THE ROMAN, EMPIRE i8i 

between the two reoions. East of the Adriatic was 
the Greek and Oriental world, old, highly cultured 
countries, with Greek language and civilization. Com- 
pared with them the Latin West was crude and 
half barbarous. The West included Italy, Gaul, 
Spain, and Britain, countries which had all received 
their lanp-uage and civilization from Rome. This 
natural division became permanent after the reign 
of Theodosius the Great. He assigned to his older 
son Arcadms the East, while he gave to his second 
son Honorius the government of the West. 

Fall of the Western Empire (a.d. 476). — The Eastern 
empire was less exposed to the attacks of the 
Germans than was Italy and the West. Under the 
new name of Byzantine or Grecian empire it lasted 
over a thousand years longer, until 1453, when 
Constantinople was taken by the Turks. 

In the Western empire Honorius and his successors 
exercised little more than nominal authority. The 
Germans continued their attacks with increasing 
fierceness, until finally the whole West was overrun 
by them. In the year 476 the last Roman emperor, 
a helpless puppet, styled Romulus Augusitilus, was 
deposed by the German chieftain Odoacer, and the 
latter made himself ruler of Italy. 



CHAPTER XV 

SOME IMPORTANT TOPICS IN ROMAN HISTORY 

The aim of this chapter is to set before the reader a few 
important subjects, which could not well be included in the 
preceding concise treatment of Roman history. 

Roman Law. — The most valuable contribution of the 
Romans to Western civilization is their system of law. 
Written law began, as above stated, with the Twelve Tables^ 
which were compiled by a commission of ten men in 
451 B.C. From this fixed basis a larger system of law, 
called Roman Civil Law, was gradually developed. During 
the later republic, the civil law was strongly influenced by 
the legal systems of the provinces. Under the empire, the 
Roman civil law, and the best parts of the laws found 
throughout the Roman world, were finally welded into one 
system. Half a century after the fall of the Western 
empire, the Byzantine emperor Justinian (reigned A.D. 527- 
565) appointed a commission of jurists, headed by the 
eminent lawyer Trebonian, to arrange and codify the 
immense mass of existing laws. The result of their labors 
is known as the ' Corpus Juris Civilisl or ' Body of the 
Civil Law.' This code has earned for Justinian the title 
of ' The Lawgiver of Civilization.' In nearly all of Europe 
the ' Corpus Juris Civilis ' is still the basis of private law. 

Roman Roads and Colonies. — The Romans carried the art of 
road-building to greatest perfection. In Italy, and even in 
England, ancient Roman road beds still form the foundation 



IMPORTANT TOPICS IN ROMAN HISTORY 183 

of the best highways. When the Romans conquered new 
territory, they always took care to connect it with the 
capital by a smooth road, over which troops could march 
rapidly. Of course, trade benefited also by the opening of 
these safe and permanent routes. 

Another method of securing new conquests was the 
establishment of permanent military camps, or of colonies 
settled with veteran soldiers and needy citizens. As these 
settlements were generally made in positions of strategic and 
commercial importance, many of them have remained large 
towns to the present day. For example the well-known 
city of Cologne on the Rhine started as a Roman frontier 
post against the Germans, named Colonia Agrippina. 

Roman Literature, Art, and Architecture. — The higher 
culture of the Romans was mostly borrowed and adapted 
from other nations, chiefly from the Greeks. While Roman 
literature has produced many celebrated works, only few of 
them attain to the excellence of the Greek models, from 
which they were imitated. The same is true of Roman 
sculpture. In architecture Greek examples were sometimes 
strictly followed. But here the Romans also had a distinct 
style of their own, composed of Etruscan and Greek 
elements blended and developed to suit special needs. 
Public buildings were often remarkable for their beauty, 
and always for their solidity. Although so many destructive 
wars have raged on the soil of the former empire, many 
Roman buildings in Italy, France, and elsewhere, still stand 
perfect at the present day. The custom of daily bathing 
led to the erection of immense public baths, and of gigantic 
aqueducts, artificial channels for bringing pure water from 
the distant mountains into Rome. Most impressive are the 
ruins of the Roman amphitheatres, which are still standing in 
various places in France and Italy. The amphitheatre con- 
sisted of a great circular or oval enclosure, called the arena, 
and of tiers of seats rising around it. The finest structure 
of the kind was the Flavian amphitheatre (Greek amphi = 
around) or Colosseum, at Rome. It was built by the Flavian 



i84 ANCIENT HISTORY 

emperors, Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian. 85,000 specta- 
tors could witness the games from its benches. Its ruins 
still present the most imposing sight in the imperial city. 

The Shows of the Amphitheatre. — The briefest account 
of Roman history would be incomplete without mention of 
the shows of the amphitheatre. From the Etruscans the 
Romans took over the custom of making soldiers, com- 
monly prisoners of war, fight to the death at funerals. 
This was believed to be an honorable form of sacrifice in 
honor of the dead. In course of time such fights became a 
popular amusement. Under the later republic gladiatorial 
games {gladi = sword) were given by special officials. The 
incident of the war of the gladiators shows what dimensions 
the sport had taken before the establishment of the empire. 
Under the emperors the gladiatorial shows became the 
principal passion of the people. Every important town had 
its amphitheatre. Men, women, and children deserted their 
homes to enjoy the sensation of watching skilled fighters 
being slain by their more skilful opponents. Wild a?iimal 
shows were combined with the games. Tigers, lions, bears, 
and other fierce beasts were set loose in the arena, to fight 
one another, or to devour criminals. 

The Civilizing Work of the Roman Empire. — A hurried review 
of Roman history is likely to fail to impress the reader 
with the valuable civilizing work of Rome. The republican 
period is filled with wars, with the destruction of great 
trading cities, and with the plundering of provinces by 
greedy governors. The annals of the empire show cruel 
monsters like Nero and Domitian oppressing their subjects. 
Even the period of the five good emperors closes with a 
general decline, and is followed by a century of constant 
warfare among rival claimants for the throne. One might 
easily get the impression that Roman rule was cruel and 
harmful. 

In fact the works of peace far outweighed the evils of 
conquest. The first provinces of the republic were honestly 
governed. Extortion began only in consequence of the 



IMPORTANT TOPICS IN ROMAN HISTORY 185 

breakdown of the senatorial rule. The reforms of Caesar 
and of Augustus gave to the provinces a just and efficient 
government. In most of them life and property were safer, 
personal wellbeing more general, justice more equitable, than 
at any previous period in the history of these countries. In 
Roman Asia the arbitrary rule of despotic princes was 
succeeded by the impartial administration of governors, who 
were held to strict account by the emperor. The mutual 
strife of the Greek cities, the tribal wars of the Gauls and 
Spaniards, the raids of Germans and Parthians, were all put 
down with a firm hand. The Rommi Peace blessed all the 
lands in the empire. The despotic rule of men like Tiberius 
and Domitian was little felt in the provinces, where the 
administrative methods founded by better emperors took 
their regular course. Rome and the imperial court were 
the chief sufferers from the whims of insane emperors. 

Such was ' the beneficent Roman empire over the whole 
civilized west,' which Caesar had founded, and Octavian 
had perfected. The Roman peace reigned almost without 
interruption until the death of Marcus Aurelius. After a 
century of disorder, the reforms of Diocletian and Con- 
stantine infused new life into the empire, and prolonged its 
existence for nearly two hundred years. 

The western half of this great realm was entirely trans- 
formed under Roman guidance. Latin language and culture 
spread over all Italy, Gaul, Spain, and other countries. In 
most of them languages are now spoken which are descended 
from the Latin tongue. The Romance languages, as they 
are called, include Italian, French, Spanish, and Portuguese. 

The Rise of Christianity. — Before the persecution of the 
Christians under Nero, little is known of the early history of 
their sect. One naturally wonders why just the Christians 
should have been picked out as objects of popular hatred 
and of special punishment by the government. The cause 
was twofold, being connected with their doctrine and with 
their organization. Christianity followed Judaism in for- 
■ bidding the worship of any other god beside the Lord. 



1 86 ANCIENT HISTORY 

Roman law demanded, however, that every loyal subject 
should worship Jupiter and Caesar. To refuse religious 
homage to the Caesar was a kind of sedition. The emperor 
Trajan ordered that the Christians should be treated as 
leniently as the law would allow, but that they must be 
punished if convicted. By the middle of the third century 
Christianity had spread over all the provinces. It had a 
regular organization and its officers exercised authority over 
the church members, almost like civil magistrates. The 
Christian religion thus seemed to build up a state within 
the state, and was declared by its opponents to be revolu- 
tionary. The emperor Decius (249-251) believed that the 
public welfare depended upon the maintenance of the old 
Roman state religion. He tried to root out Christianity 
by a terrible persecution of its adherents. The most deter- 
mined effort to extirpate the faith was made under Diocletian. 
For a while all people who refused to worship the Roman 
gods, were punished with death. 

The new faith flourished in spite of all obstacles. The 
great Roman empire, with its universal languages of Greek 
and Latin, was a ready field for the spread of the doctrine. 
The disbelief in the outworn pagan religions and the general 
immorality led many people to embrace the new religion 
with its purer teachings. Slaves and other unfortunates 
listened with gladness to a message which taught them that 
rich and poor, emperor and slave, would all, after death, 
stand alike before the Great Judge in heaven, to be judged 
according to their deeds on earth. This feature of 
Christianity contained dejnocratic ideas, which in due time, 
many centuries later, were to spread from the field of 
religion to that of politics. 

The organization of the Christian Church was largely 
modelled after the civil government of the empire. Certain 
high officers, called patriarchs, had the highest authority. 
After the emperor Constantine had made Christianity the 
state religion, the patriarch of Constantinople was recognized 
as the head of the church in the East. In the West, the' 



IMPORTANT TOPICS IN ROMAN HISTORY 187 

bishops of Rome rose to great influence. During the 
troublous times before and after the deposition of Romulus 
Augustulus, Rome was often left without protection, and 
without regular government. The people then looked to 
the bishop for guidance in political as well as religious 
matters, because he was always there when other authorities 
failed. The Western world was so accustomed to accepting 
commands from Rome, that the Roman bishops were natu- 
rally regarded as higher than the others. These and other 
causes combined to place the bishops, later called Popes, at 
the head of the Church in the West. 

Christianity gave to the Roman world a higher standard 
of morality than the old pagan beliefs. It taught kindness 
to the slave, charity to the poor, purity of family life. The 
cruel gladiatorial fights were forbidden by the Christian 
emperors. One bad principle the Christian doctrine took 
over from Judaism : that of religious i7itolerance. Before 
Constantine the Great all creeds could build their own altars 
and temples, so long as they did not appear politically 
dangerous or morally bad. The triumph of Christianity 
brought that sad period, when heretics ( = persons departing 
from the accepted religion) were extirpated with fire and 
sword. To no other human error can so many dreadful 
crimes be charged, as to the spirit of religious intolerance. 
Through it many millions of people perished unjustly. 
Europe remained in the grip of this error until modern 
times. The recent persecutions of the Jews in Russia, which 
shocked the modern world, represent a remnant of the old 
intolerance. 



PART II 
MEDIAEVAL HISTORY, 375-1492. 

(FROM THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE MIGRATIONS OF THE 
TEUTONIC TRIBES TO THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA.) 

Introduction. — The convenient arrangement of history into 
sharply-divided periods does not mean that such exact 
divisions actually occurred. They are made by historians, 
in order to afford a better grasp of the great subject by 
cutting it into smaller parts. When the Visigoths crossed 
the lower Danube, their migration affected only a section of 
the Eastern empire. Elsewhere the daily life of the people 
remained unchanged. Looking back from modern times, 
however, we recognize that the first successful invasion of 
Roman territory by the Germans marked the beginning of a 
movement which gradually transformed Europe. Therefore 
the date A.D. 375 is chosen as the commencement of the 
Middle Ages. Many historians prefer A.D. 476, the date of 
the deposition of the last Western emperor. 

In 1492 Columbus discovered some of the West Indian 
islands. Many people in Europe did not even hear of this 
event. But it led to many other voyages of exploration, 
and so proved to be the first in a series of events which 
changed the face of the globe. The year 1492 is therefore 
quite generally chosen to mark the beginning of modern 
history. 




Columbus. 



CHAPTER XVI 



GERMANIC HISTORY TO THE DEATH OF 
CHARLEMAGNE 

Early Migrations of the Teutonic Tribes. — Of the 

Germans or Teutons we have no certain knowledge 
before their first migratory movement at the close of 
the second century before Christ. The Cimbri and 



iQo MEDIAEVAL HISTORY 

Teutones,^ who were searching for new homes in the 
south, were annihilated by Marius. Caesar stopped a 
German invasion of Gaul. Augustus lost an army 
in the attempt to subjugate the country east of the 
Rhine. During the first centuries of the Christian era 
the Teutonic tribes made frequent attempts to break 
across the Roman boundary. Their numbers were 
growing too great for their wild country. Marcus 
Aurelius died while defending the Danube frontier. 
After him the emperors tried to ward off the danger 
by taking Germanic warriors into the Roman legions, 
and by allowing whole tribes to settle in the border 
provinces. 

The Huns. — During the fourth century after Christ, 
the Huns wandered westward into the steppes be- 
tween the Caspian Sea and the Ural mountains. The 
Huns were nomads, of Mongolian race. They have 
been identified as descendants of the Hiung-nu, who 
ravaged northern China during the Han Dynasty 
(b.c. 206-A.D. 25), and against whom Shih Hwang-ti 
(b.c. 246-221) had built the Great Wall. In a.d. 375 
the Huns crossed the Volga river and attacked the 
Ostrogoths, a Germanic tribe then dwelling north of 
the Black Sea. The Ostrogoths ( = eastern Goths) 
joined forces with the Huns and fell upon the Visi- 
goths ( = western Goths), whose settlements extended 
into Dacia, north of the lower Danube. 

The Migration of Nations. — The Visigoths, with per- 
mission of the emperor at Constantinople, crossed 
the Danube. They came with their wives and 

1 Distinguish the racial name ' Teut'ons,' meaning ancient Germans, or 
Germanic peoples, from the tribal name ' Teut'ones.' 



TO THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE 191 

children, as a whole nation. Thus began the great 
migration of Germanic nations, which soon put the 
whole empire at the mercy of the barbarians, and which 
ended with the establishment of Germanic kingdoms 
on the ruins of the Western Roman empire. 

The Visigoths. — The Visigoths soon found a bold 
leader in their young king Alaric. The Eastern 
emperor, Arcadius, saved his realm from destruction 
by directing the Goths against Italy. In 410 Alaric 
plundered Rome, sparing only the Christian churches, 
for the Goths were themselves Christians. Havino- 
conquered all Italy, Alaric planned to invade Africa. 
But his victorious career was cut short by his death. 
His successors established a Visio-othic kino-dom in 
southern Gaul. In the year 507 they retreated into 
Spain, having been defeated by the Prankish king 
Clovis. The Gothic kingdom in Spain, with Toledo 
as capital, lasted until its conquest by the Saracens 
in 71 1. 

The Ostrogoths. — In 493 Theodoric the Great, king 
of the East Goths, overthrew the German Odoacer, 
who had set himself up as ruler over Italy. Theodoric 
governed well, and treated his Itedian subjects kindly. 
He was the most powerful monarch of his time. The 
Ostrogothic kingdom might have lasted long after 
his death, had it not been for a difference of religion, 
which will be explained below. In 555 Narses, a 
general sent by the Byzantine emperor Justinian, 
destroyed the remnants of the East Gothic nation, 
and made Italy a province of the Greek empire. 

Arians and Athanasians. — Before the rei^n of 
Constantine a great quarrel had arisen among the 



192 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY 

Christians about some points of religious doctrine. 
The doctrine itself has no interest here. It is of im- 
portance that the spirit of intolerance condemned the 
followers of another dogma as worse than pagans. 
Constantine called a council of Christian leaders at 
Nicaea (a.d. 325) to end the quarrel. The majority- 
was of opinion that the creed of Atkanasius, which 
said that God and Christ were one and the same, 
was correct. The creed of Arius, which 'made Christ 
to be different from God, was declared heresy. The 
Visigoths, Ostrogoths, and some other tribes remained 
faithful to the Aryan doctrine. For this reason the 
orthodox ( = rightly taught) people of Italy hated 
the Ostrogoths, and helped Narses against them. 

The Vandals in Africa (429-534). — When Alaric 
invaded Italy, all the Roman legions were withdrawn 
from Britain and from the Rhine for the defence 
of Rome. Various German tribes at once poured 
into the unprotected provinces. The Vandals marched 
through Gaul and Spain into Africa, There they 
founded a kingdom, with Carthage for its capital, 
which lasted over a century. In 455 a Vandal ex- 
pedition landed at the mouth of the Tiber, and 
plundered Rome for two weeks. Since then an act 
of wanton destruction has been called Vandalism. 
The emperor Justinian, through his general Belisarius, 
destroyed the Vandal nation, and united Africa with 
the eastern empire (534). 

The Angles and Saxons in Britain. — From North 
Germany two pagan tribes, called the Angles and 
Saxons, invaded Britain during the close of the 
century. The Romanized Britons offered obstinate 



TO THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE 193 

resistance, and could only be driven back step by 
step. The bitterness of the struggle led to the 
extinction of the British race and of Roman civili- 
zation on the island. After one hundred years, when 
the conquest was completed, the Roman Christian 
island of Britain had been changed into Germanic, 
pagan England, the land of the Angles or Engles. 
Only Scotland, Wales, and Cornwall kept their ancient 
Celtic population behind the shelter of their mountains. 

The Lombards in Italy (568-774). — The German 
Lombards crossed the Alps soon after the fall of the 
Ostrogothic kingdom, and gradually made themselves 
masters of nearly all Italy. The kingdom established 
by their leader Alboin lasted until its overthrow by 
Charles the Great, in a.d. 774. The name Lombardy 
has since then adhered to the Po valley. 

The Hunnic Invasion of Europe. — The Huns were 
in every way different from the Germans. The latter 
were large men with fair skin, reddish or blond 
hair, long beards, and big blue eyes. They fought 
on foot, and they thought it was shameful to turn 
one's back on the enemy. The Huns were small of 
stature, with the yellow complexion, the coarse black 
hair, the thin beards, and small, dark eyes typical of 
most Mongolian peoples. They lived and fought on 
the backs of their shaggy Mongolian ponies. Their 
sudden attack with a shower of arrows was followed 
by an equally sudden retreat. The Roman and 
German soldiers were quite helpless in the face of 
an enemy whom they could not reach. It is In- 
teresting to note that these first Mongolian invaders 
of Europe made the same impression on the people, 

G.H. N 



t94 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY 

as the first blue-eyed English did on the Chinese. 
Most exao-orerated stories were told about the terrible 

oo 

'black devils.' For centuries European nurses 
frightened their children by saying: "The Huns will 
take you." 

The popular fear of the Huns was well grounded. 
They were not home-seekers, like the Germans, but 
were only bent on murder and pillage. One of their 
chiefs, Attila, planned to establish a Hunnic empire 
in the West. Taking the plains of the middle Danube 
as his central territory, he started to overrun Europe. 
The Byzantine emperors saved themselves by heavy 
annual tributes. In the year 451 Attila led his horse- 
men into Gaul. He was defeated in a terrible battle 
near Ckaions, in which the Visigoths and Romans 
joined against the common foe. In the following 
year Attila ravaged northern Italy. The people of 
Venetia fled before him on to some islands at the 
head of the Adriatic, where they laid the foundations 
of Venice. In 453 Attila died — his enemies said from 
overdrinking at a feast. With him all definite political 
aims left the Huns. They dispersed, and no one 
J^nows what has become of them. 

The Kingdom of the Franks. — The Franks were 
amonof the German tribes which crossed the Rhine 
early in the fifth century. A branch of them settled 
in what is now north-eastern France. Others re- 
mained on the rio-ht bank of the Rhine. The Franks 
were raised to a commanding position by a great 
man and by a fortunate choice of religion. The man 
was the chieftain Cloms, who ruled as king of the 
Franks from 481-51 1. Clovis was cruel and un- 



TO THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE 195 

principled, but he was also strong in body and mind. 
In those unruly times strength was the quality most 
needed in a king. By war, murder, and deceit he 
made himself supreme within his own family, and 
over the surrounding countries. He adopted Roman 
Catholic (Athanasian) Christianity, and made his 
subjects embrace the same faith. Of course the rude 
pagans did not at once practise the gentle and 
peaceable manners prescribed by Christ, but kept the 
violent spirit natural to their race. Clovis at once 
set himself up as a special guardian of Catholic 
Christianity. He attacked the Visigoths, because as 
Aryan Christians they were enemies of the orthodox 
religion, and drove them out of southern Gaul. The 
Prankish kingdom now extended over the whole of 
Gaul, and included the western part of Germany. 
After the death of Clovis his descendants, called the 
Merovingians, ruled over the Franks for more than 
a century and a half Their annals are filled with 
murders and barbarities of every sort. 

The Understanding between the Popes and the Prankish 
Kings. — The Popes in Rome adhered to the Athanasian 
creed. After a while their religion was called Roman 

o 

Catholicis7n. We have already seen that most of the 
German tribes were Aryans, and therefore dangerous 
to the Popes. When Clovis embraced the Roman 
Catholic faith, he did so because his wife happened 
to believe in it, not because he understood or cared 
about the difference between the two creeds. This 
accidental conversion of the Franks was of oreat 
importance for later European history. It at once 
made them the best friends of the Popes. The 



196 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY 

kings were able to give military help to the Popes, 
and the latter in turn used their religious influence 
in favor of the Prankish monarchs. 

The Mayors of the Palace. — The last Merovingians 
are known as the ' Do-nothing kings,' on account 
of their indolence. Their power fell into the hands 
of ministers, called ' mayors of the palace.' During 
the seventh century the office of these ministers 
became hereditary in the famous family of the 
Carolingians. One of them, Charles Martel ( = the 
hammer), so called for his prowess in battle, did 
an invaluable service to Europe by stopping the 
advance of the Arabs. They had overthrown the 
Visigothic kingdom, and occupied southern Gaul. 
Their further success would have extinguished the 
Germanic, Christian states of Western Europe. In 
the great battle between Tours and Poitiers (a.d. 732), 
Charles Martel's victory saved Germanic civilization. 
Charles' son, Pipin, deposed the last Merovingian 
king, and assumed the royal title himself. In his 
usurpation of the throne he was aided by the Pope, 
who said that the man who actually performed the 
duties of the king should also bear the title. The 
Popes claimed to be the representatives of God on 
earth, and the Western Christians acknowledged the 
claim. In return for the Pope's services the new 
Prankish king punished his enemies, the Lombards, 
and gave to him a part of their lands in central 
Italy. Thus was laid the foundation of the Papal 
States. Henceforth the Popes, who had exercised 
only spiritual (priestly) authority, were also temporal 
rulers. 



TO THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE 197 

Charles the Great (Charlemagne) (a.d. 768-814).— 
Charles the Great, the son of Pipin, raised the 
Prankish kingdom to the height of its power. He 
enlarged his dominions by numerous campaigns in 
all directions. In the south-west he tore the territory 
between the Pyrenees and the river Ebro from the 
grasp of the Arabs, and erected it into the Spanish 
March. A quarrel with the Lombard king Desiderius 
he ended by locking the latter up in a monastery, 
and placing on his own head the iron crown of the 
Lombard king's. His most determined foes were 
the Saxons, a pagan German tribe dwelling between 
the Rhine and the Elbe. They rose many times 
against the Prankish invader, the oppressor of their 
liberty and of their cherished faith. At last Charles 
in his anger ordered the decapitation of 4500 Saxons. 
Even this severity did not break their heroic patriotism. 
Charles had to deport many Saxons, and to settle 
Prankish colonists in their place, before the brave 
people accepted him as sovereign, and Christianity 
as their religion. 

Excepting the English, Charlemagne united under 
his rule all the Germanic peoples of Western Europe. 
His plan was to found a Germanic world empire, 
modelled somewhat after the ancient Roman empire. 
Por this purpose he had himself crowned as emperor 
in Rome, in the year 800. 

At that time Italy nominally was still under the authority 
of the ea.stern emperor. But the weak Byzantine govern- 
ment could neither protect Italy against the Lombards, nor 
maintain its authority over the Popes. On the contrary, the 
Roman Church was about to sever its connection with 
Constantinople, on account of some violent religious disputes. 



TO THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE 199 

which finally led to the complete separation of the Greek 
Catholic from the Roman Catholic Church.^ The Romans 
even claimed, as a contemporary chronicle says, " that the 
name of Emperor had ceased among the Greeks," because 
" among them the Empire was held by a woman called Irene, 
who had by guile laid hold on her son the Emperor and 
put out his eyes, and taken the Empire to herself" The 
conception of the Roman Empire however, and the respect 
for the imperial name, were still strong among the people, 
and it seemed proper to them that the man holding the 
actual power of the former Caesars in the west should also 
bear their title. 

On Christmas day, in the church of St. Peter at Rome, 
Pope Leo III. placed a golden crown on the Prankish 
king's head, and proclaimed him emperor of the Romans. 
Thus was established the 'Holy Roman Empire,' which 
lasted until its abolition by Napoleon in 1806. The 
Byzantine emperors continued to regard themselves 
as the real Roman emperors, quite ignoring the 
German rulers of the West, until the Eastern Roman 
empire was overthrown by the Turks in 1453. 

Charlemagne's Use of the Christian Church. — Charles 
wished to unify and to civilize the countries under 
his government. The Franks, Lombards, Saxons, and 
other German peoples were still very rude and violent. 
The ancient Germans valued personal independence 
above all else, and were intolerant of well-regulated 
authority. Every freeman liked to be his own master. 
Society therefore tended to fall into disorder. Now 
the Roman church was a well-organized institution, 
resting on the traditions of old Roman law. It was 

^The present Greek Catholic religion of Russia and the Balkan States 
is quite distinct from Roman Catholicism, although the two religions are 
very similar. 



200 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY 

the only civilizing force available against the unruly 
spirit of the times. Charlemagne saw in the Church 
a ready instrument for his plans of empire. He 
erected new bishoprics, built many churches, and 
forced his pagan subjects to accept the Christian 
faith. In connection with the churches he opened 
the first schools in mediaeval Europe. The foremost 
scholars of the time were gathered at Charles' court. 

Failure of Charlemagne's Plans. — Charles was supreme 
over all Western Europe during his lifetime. But 
he failed to establish a united and dominant German 
Nation. His subjects were not ripe for the feeling 
of a great nationality. Every noble in the land wished 
to be an independent lord, and most of them pre- 
ferred blind violence to law and order. From without, 
also, came attacks by the Slavic peoples from the 
East, and by the Northmen from the northern seas. 
Charles had hardly died when all these forces of ' 
disorder undid much of his life work. The dark ages 
of Europe had yet to continue for several centuries. 

The Treaty of Verdun (a.d. 843). — After a series 
of wars three grandsons of Charlemagne divided the 
empire among themselves, by the celebrated treaty 
of Verdun. A broad strip running from Italy to the 
North Sea was given to Lothar, who was emperor. 
The eastern part fell to Ludwig the Ge^'nian. His 
dominions were the beginning of Germany. The 
western section, inhabited mostly by Romance people, 
was ruled by Charles the Bald. Its language, de- 
scended from Latin, developed into the French tongue, 
and its people became the French nation. 



CHAPTER XVII 

MOHAMMED AiN'U THE SPREAD OF ISLAM 

The Arabs before Mohammed. — The Semitic people 
inhabiting the deserts and oases of Arabia have always 
been free nomads. The sparse pastures force a roving 
life on the shepherds and horsemen, who are thus 
prevented from combining into organized states. The 
girdle of deserts also forms a barrier against invading 
armies. The Arabs have repeatedly acknowledged 
an outside overlord — as now the Turkish Sultan — but 
they have never been brought into complete subjection. 

Before the rise of Islam the Arabs were split up 
into many independent tribes, which were often at war 
-with each other. They were idolaters, and practised 
many barbarous customs, such as that of burying new- 
born girls alive. The tribe of the Koreishites at Mecca 
enjoyed high authority in religion and gained consider- 
able wealth by foreign trade. They were the guardians 
of the Caaba, a temple in Mecca, which contained the 
most sacred object of the Arabs, a black stone. 

Mohammed. — Mohammed^ was born from a poor 
family of the Koreishites, about the year 570. He 

'The name is also written ' Mahomet.' The Arabian is 'Muham'mad,' 
whence the followers are also called ' Muham'madans.' 



202 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY 

first earned his living as a shepherd. A marriage 
with a wealthy widow raised him to a more influential 
position among the merchants. His deeply religious 
nature led him to withdraw often to a cave outside 
of Mecca, where he prayed and thought about the 
religious needs of his people. He wished to teach 
them a better and higher belief than their idolatry. 
Mohammed's religious fervour finally grew so intense, 
that he fell into trances and had visions, during 
which an angel revealed to him the will of God. 
He now knew himself to be the prophet appointed 
by the Lord to make known His commands among 
men. The Koreishites first ridiculed his preaching. 
Soon they got angry and threatened him with death. 
About the same time Mohammed converted some 
pilgrims from Medina, who had come to worship at 
the Caaba. The new disciples invited their teacher 
to come to their town. Accordingly Mohammed fled 
to Medina, and assumed there the leadership of his 
sect. This flight happened in the year 622, and is 
famous by its Arabian name Hegira. The Moslems 
reckon their dates from the Hegfira. 

Islam. — The doctrine of Mohammed is based largely 
on Jewish and Christian beliefs, with which the 
prophet became acquainted during his youth. It is a 
strict monotheism (belief in one God). Mixed with 
this are some old Arabian ceremonies, which were 
adapted to the new religion. Mohammed called his 
doctrine Islam, which means submission, or obedience 
to the will of God. Its principal tenets are: (i) 
The belief that there is no God but Allah, and that 
Mohammed is his prophet ; (2) the duty of praying 



MOHAMMED AND THE SPREAD OF ISLAM 203 

five times daily; (3) giving alms to the poor; (4) 
fasting during the month of Ramadhan;^ (5) making 
a pilgrimage to Mecca. Islam teaches that all the 
deeds and fortunes of men are predestined by Allah, 
that no man can escape his preordained fate, and that 
he must submit to whatever God may have decreed 
for him. In philosophy such a view is called fatalism. 

Among the minor ordinances of Islam are those 
forbiddino- the eatino- of swine's flesh and the drinkino- 
of wine. During prayer the Moslems must face 
toward Mecca. 

The holy book of Islam is the Koran. It consists 
of the inspired sayings of Mohammed, which were 
written down by his disciples. All good Moslems 
consider the Koran as the infallible word of God. 

Mohammed preaches Religious War. — In Medina 
Mohammed stated that Allah wished the rightful 
religion to be taught to all peoples. Obstinate 
infidels should be converted with the sword. The 
soldiers of Islam, who died while fighting for their 
faith, would go straight to the pleasures of the most 
beautiful paradise. The souls of unbelievers, however, 
must forever suffer the tortures of hell. The reh^ious 
fanaticism thus created by the prophet made his 
followers almost invincible. Death had no terror for 
them, since it would certainly bring the eternal joys 
of heaven. When Mohammed died, in 632, he was 
ruler over all Arabia, and had just prepared for the 
conquest of Syria. 

Conquests of the Caliphs. — The successors of Moham- 
med, who exercised his full authority in government 

^ Ra'm'a-dhan', the 'hot month,' is the ninth Mohammedan month. 



204 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY 

and religion, were called Caliphs. The marvellous 
successes of their armies form one of the most 
wonderful chapters in history. Within ten years 
after Mohammed's death, they subjected Syria, Egypt, 
and Persia. Their attacks on Constantinople were 
beaten back by the Greek emperors, but the 
end of the seventh century found the whole north 
coast of Africa in their hands. The Moslem popu- 
lation, which grew up in north-western Africa by 
the mixture of Arabs and natives, was called Moors 
or Saracens. In 711 the Moors crossed over into 
Spain and defeated the Visigoths in the decisive 
battle of Xeres de la Frontera. The whole peninsula, 
except its most inaccessible mountain districts, was 
quickly occupied by the Moslem conquerors. We have 
already learned how Charles Martel prevented the 
Saracens from gaining a foothold beyond the Pyrenees. 

Civil Wars among the Caliphs. — Mohammed made 
no definite rule about his succession. Soon after his 
death this question led to violent controversy and 
civil war. The adherents of different Caliphs also 
held different beliefs about some points of doctrine. 
The Shiites regarded the offspring of Mohammed's 
son-in-law AH as the rightful successors. They finally 
got the upper hand in Persia, where they still rule 
at the present day. The Sunnites, as the followers 
of the other sect were called, found their strongest 
adherents in the Turks, 

The Ommiad Dynasty (661-750).— The Caliphs of this 
dynasty had Damascus in Syria for their capital. 
Under their rule the caliphate reached its greatest 
extent, embracing south-western Asia from the Gulf 



MOHAMMED AND THE SPREAD OF ISLAM 205 

of Arabia and the Indus to the Mediterranean and 
the Caucasus, the entire northern coast of Africa, 
most of Spain, Sardinia, Corsica, and minor islands 
in the Mediterranean. But the followers of Ali 
made constant war on the Caliphs. Finally Abbas, 
the great-grandson of an uncle of the prophet, over- 
threw the last Ommiad, and ordered the butchery of 
the whole family. Only few escaped from the dreadful 
massacre, among them Abd-er- Rahman, who founded 
in Spain the independent Caliphate of Cordova. 

The Abbasides (750-1258). — Abbas founded the 
dynasty of the Abbasides, the most renowned of 
all the rulers of Islam. They built the new capital 
of Bagdad on the Tigris, a city which rivalled in 
splendor ancient Babylon, and which far excelled 
in wealth and culture any contemporary capital 
of the West. The best known of the Abbaside 
Caliphs was Haroun-al-Raschid, a friend of Charles 
the Great. Haroun was a liberal patron of science 
and literature, and brouoht Arabic trade and industry 
to their highest level. His son Al-Mamun continued 
the glorious reign of the father. Sicily and Sardinia 
were invaded by the Arabs at this time, and remained 
in their hands for two hundred years. After Al- 
Mamun the huge empire gradually fell to pieces. 
The last Abbasides had only a shadow of the old 
power, as several governors had made themselves 
independent sovereigns, while rival Caliphs ruled 
both in Spain and in Egypt. 

Civilization of the Arabs. — Under the guidance of 
able Caliphs, the Arabs quickly acquired a high 
degree of civilization. They translated Greek classical 



2o6 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY 

works, notably those of Aristotle, into Arabic, and 
founded schools of learning at Bagdad, Alexandria, 
and Cordova. They had more refined manners, better 
buildings, superior industry and trade, than the 
Germanic West of their time. The first scholars 
and doctors of mediaeval Europe got their knowledge 
from Arabian teachers. 

The reader may think that in view of the higher Arabian 
civilization it would have been better for Europe if the 
Moors had won the battle of Tours and Poitiers. History 
has shown, however, that Arabian progress, though brilliant 
for a while, was unable to go on beyond the level already 
attained during the ninth and tenth centuries. Since then 
the Mohammedan peoples have made no considerable pro- 
gress. The reasons for this limitation lie chiefly in certain 
defects of Islam, (i) Fatalism tends to discourage enter- 
prise, and leads people to submit to misfortunes without 
a real struggle. But nothing helps people forward more 
than to struggle bravely against adversity. (2) The union 
of all civil and religious power in one ruler, the caliph, 
prevented the development of liberal institutions in 
Mohammedan countries. They remained tied to a system 
of absolutism, which also prevented progress. (3) The 
religion of Islam was well defined from the beginning in the 
Koran and other writings under the guidance of Mohammed 
and his immediate successors. Fixed standards of belief 
were thus set up, which have remained almost unchanged 
to the present day. They act like fetters on the minds 
of Mohammedans, tending to keep them at the level attained 
under the first caliphs. This point is easily understood 
by a comparison with Christianity. The latter religion was 
not so clearly defined, Christ having left no single word which 
was either written or dictated by Him. Christianity, therefore, 
could grow with the needs of its believers. It never remained 
quite the same, but developed according to the degree of 
knowledge and intelligence reached by the Western peoples. 



MOHAMMED AND THE SPREAD OF ISLAM 207 

Mohammedan Conquest of India. — About fifteen years 
after the prophet's death an Arabian naval expedition 
landed on the Bombay coast. Subsequent attacks on 
India were repelled by the desperate valor of the 
Hindu warriors. Meanwhile Islam spread among the 
, fierce mountain tribes of Afo^hanistan. Their kinor 
Mahmud (1001-1030) led seventeen invasions into 
India, and reduced the western Punjab to a Moham- 
medan province of Afghanistan. Two hundred years 
later another Afghan ruler, named Mithammad of 
Gkor, conquered all northern India from the delta 
of the Indus to that of the Ganges. By the year 
1306 all India had fallen under the sway of a 
Mohammedan Sultan ruling at Delhi, Large numbers 
of Turkish and Afghan Mohammedans settled in the 
northern parts of the country. 

The House of Tughlak ( 1 3 20- 1 4 1 4) ; Decline of the 
Early Delhi Empire. — From 1320 to 1414 the Dynasty 
of Tughlak, founded by a rebel who had started 
life as a slave, upheld the Mohammedan rule in 
Delhi. The second sovereign of this house, Mu- 
hammad Tughlak, was an able and ambitious 
monarch. He sent a large expedition, said to have 
consisted of 100,000 men, against China, where the 
Mongolian Yuan Dynasty was already sorely troubled 
by revolts. But the army perished in the terrible 
mountain passes of the Himalayas. 

The Delhi Sultans were in perpetual danger from 
insurrections of their own oenerals and of the dis- 
satisfied Hindu races. At the same time new 
Mohammedan invasions from Central Asia swept 
through the north-western mountain passes. Just as 




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MOHAMMED AND THE SPREAD OF ISLAM 209 

the weak Roman emperors had enrolled German 
fighters in their lesrions, so the Delhi Sultans souoht 
safety from the Mongol (Mughal) hordes by employing 
them as mercenaries. The empire of Delhi finally 
broke up into numerous smaller Mohammedan and 
Hindu states. There was no great central power 
left to resist the Mongol invasion under Baber 
(1526). (See Ch. XIX.) 

Present Number of Mohammedans in India. — Of the 
300 million people now living in India, 60 million, 
or one fifth, are Mohammedans. They are mostly 
descendants of the invaders, and are at many points 
antagonistic to the dominant Hindu population. 

The Spread of Mohammedanism into China. — Arabian 
merchants came to Canton as early as the seventh 
and eio-hth centuries. Through them Islam was first 
introduced in China. Under the Mongol emperors, 
during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, large 
numbers of Turkish and Tartar Moslems entered 
Kansu and Shensi from the north-west. They gradu- 
ally spread their faith to most parts of the northern 
provinces. The * Huei Huei' are estimated to 
number from twenty to thirty millions. They are all 
Sunnites, and regard the Sultan in Constantinople 
(or Srambul, as they usually call it) as their religious 
head. Fortunately the Chinese Mohammedans are 
not very strict in their observance of the orthodox 
faith. Otherwise the belief that the Sultan is their 
Caliph also in civil matters would be a more serious 
political problem for China than it actually need be 
considered. 



G.H. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

EUROPEAN HISTORY FROM THE TREATY OF VERDUN 
TO THE CLOSE OF THE CRUSADES (843-1270) 

The Northmen. — The ancient Germanic dwellers in 
Denmark and Scandinavia are known as Northmen, 
Norsemen, or Scandinavians. In their far northern 
homes these wild men remained long untouched by 
the civilizing influence of Rome and of the Christian 
Church. During the ninth century the Norse people 
grew too numerous for their bleak country. At first 
their fighting men sailed on annual expeditions to 
the shores of Germany, England, and France, pillaged 
the cities even so far inland as Paris, and returned 
with their booty to their northern fjords. 

After a while the Norsemen made permanent settle- 
ments on the coasts of several countries. The Danes 
conquered the eastern part of England, and in 10 16 
Canute, the king of Denmark, became also king of 
England. After twenty-six years of Danish rule the 
old English royal family regained the throne. But 
the Danish settlers remained a permanent and valuable 
part of the population of England. 

The Swedes gained a foothold on the Russian 
shores of the Baltic early in the ninth century. The 



EUROPEAN HISTORY 2n 

Norse warriors were regarded by the Russians with 
fear and respect. In the year 862 the Norse chief 
Ru7'ik was acknowledged as king over part of Russia. 
His successors laid the foundations of the oreat 
Russian monarchy. 

The successors of Charles the Great in France were 
unable to defend their land against the northern sea 
rovers. To get peace, they granted a great part of 
north western Gaul to Rollo, a Scandinavian chief 
The North men settled in France soon became known 
as the Normans. They adopted the language, reli-" 
gion, and customs of their French neighbors. 

Feudalism. — The social institutions of the Middle 
Ages in Europe were very diiferent both from the 
Roman and from the modern customs They were 
all determined by a peculiar system of land tenure 
and of government, which is known as the feudal 
system, or feMcialisjn. 

Its importance is readily seen, when one learns that 
the whole life of the European nations was shaped 
by feudalism during more than three centuries (the 
eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth), and that some feudal 
customs and ideas have survived to the present day. 
Feudal institutions were not exactly alike throughout 
the different countries of Western Europe. The 
following description will present only the main 
features. 

(i) Land Tenure. — God — so said feudal theorists — 
gave the country to the king, who is its lord or 
suzerain. The king could give large or small parts 
of his land to nobles, called his vassals. 7^he vassals 
were absolute lords of their territory ox fief . They 



212 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY 

could Invest lesser lords with parts of their fiefs, and 
thus have vassals of their own. 

(2) Government. — The lord of a feudal estate, no 
matter whether it was the size of a province or of 
a big" farm, was absolute ruler over his land. Its 
inhabitants were his subjects. He could tax them, 
punish them, be kind or cruel toward them. But if he 
bestowed some part of his land on a subvassal, then 
the sovereignty went with the land, and the subvassal 
also became a little king over his own fief A single 
example will show how far this division of govern- 
mental authority was carried : France during the 
eleventh century was divided into about two hundred 
ereat fiefs. Their lords were the immediate vassals 
of the king. They had each his own vassals, and 
the latter again had subvassals, so that about 
70,000 smaller fiefs existed in France. 

(3) Rights and Duties of Lords and Vassals. — The 
lord had to give protection to his vassal. If the 
latter was threatened by a powerful enemy, the 
suzerain was obliged to help him. The vassal, in 
turn, swore to be always the faithful friend and ally 
of his 'liege lord.' A disloyal vassal lost his fief 
by ' forfeiture.' 

(4) The Feudal Army was very showy, but cumber- 
some and inefficient. It consisted of the various 
lords, and of their mounted followers called knights. 
They all fought on horseback, with lance and sword, 
and were clad from head to foot in heavy iron armor. 
Personal prowess and skill was valued above general- 
ship, and every knight tried to outdo the others in 
deeds of bravery. Compared with the Roman legion, 



EUROPEAN HISTORY 213 

or with a modern army, there was ahnost no discipline. 
The system of vassalage prevented the formation of 
permanent military forces. To raise an army, a king 
had to summon the great lords ; they, in turn, called 
on their vassals, and the latter on their vassals. 
Months might pass away before such an armed 
gathering was ready for the field, 

(5) Classes of Feudal Society. — The lords formed the 
smallest part of the population. They regarded them- 
selves as higher beings than the rest of humanity. 
Through many kinds of taxation, extortion, and 
robbery they lived in luxury from the work of the 
lower classes. Most of the common people were 
serfs, unfree men who were forced to till the lands 
of their lord, and to pay him the greater share of the 
products of their industry. The serfs were tied to 
the land, and could not be bought or sold like slaves. 
Slavery continued until the thirteenth century; since the 
sixth century the slaves in most countries were gradually 
turned into serfs. The most progressive part of 
the population were the common freemen, mostly 
artisans and merchants, who lived in the towns. In 
some parts of Europe, notably in England, there 
was also a large class of free farmers, called yeomanry. 
Life of the Nobility. — A young noble could either 
, enter the Church or become a knight. The bishops, 
archbishops, and other high dignitaries of the Roman 
Catholic Church were mostly members of the nobility 
and holders of feudal estates. For a knip;ht the onlv 
proper pursuits were war, hunting, or military games. 
These games, called tournaments, consisted in mock 
fights on horseback, in full armor. Frequently a 



214 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY 

combatant was killed. The residences of the feudal 
nobles were fortified castles, built on hill tops or in 
other commanding positions. Behind their strong 
castle walls the nobles could defy their enemies. 
When the division of authority had brought the 
royal power to its lowest ebb, as happened especi- 
ally in Germany, then the knights descended even 
to highway robbery, and their castles were turned 
into the headquarters of noble brigandage. Merchants 
travelling along the road were stopped by mail clad 
robber barons, and were glad to be set free after 
the loss of half their goods. 

Estimate of Feudalism. — Feudalism afforded a rough and 
imperfect sort of government in times when chaos had 
taken the place of order. It suited the turbulent people 
who were not ripe for Charlemagne's plan of establishing a 
great centralized empire. The migration of nations shook 
Europe to its very foundations. Before a new civilization 
could rise from the ruins, society gradually had to find its 
way back to law and order. Feudalism was the first stage 
in this upward progress. 

The worst feature of feudalism was the gulf between 
noble and serf In several European countries, notably in 
France, society until modern times fell into two great classes, 
the nobles, who despised all people outside of their order, 
and the mass of the common people, both freemen and serfs, 
who hated the nobles worse than poison. The injustice of 
this division helped to bring the terrible French revolution 
at the close of the eighteenth century. 

The best points of feudalism were these : First the relation 
between lord and vassal developed a high regard for truth 
and for the promised word. The ancient Germans were 
truth-loving by nature, and this good characteristic was 
confirmed by the feudal code of honor. No worse insult 
can be offered to a Western gentleman at the present day, 



EUROPEAN HISTORY 215 

than to call him a liar. Secondly, various customs of 
knighthood bred a veneration for women, such as they had 
never before enjoyed in any society. That women in the 
West now hold such a high place in their families, that they 
are educated to be helpmates of their husbands and advisors 
to their sons, all this is largely due to feudalism. 

Foundation of the Hungarian Nation. — The Magyars 
or Hungarians are the second Turanian people who 
invaded Europe in historic times. Moving gradually 
westward from their old home in Western Siberia, 
they occupied, about 895, the plains on both sides 
of the Middle Danube, which are now known as 
Hungary. For half a century they conducted plun- 
dering expeditions as far as the North Sea, Southern 
France, and Italy. The Emperor Otto I. put an 
end to their devastations by his great victory on the 
Lechfeld, in 955. During the following century the 
Magyars adopted Christianity, and by it they were 
gradually won over to the customs and institutions 
of the European peoples. During the fifteenth and 
sixteenth century the Hungarian warriors were the 
main bulwark of the Christian West against the 
attacks of the Mohammedan Turks. 

Second Renewal of the Roman Empire (962). — King 
Otto I. the Great, of Germany (936-973), was a wise 
and energetic ruler. He curbed the unruly nobles, 
brought the royal authority into respect, and ex- 
tended his kingdom by conquest. In 962 Otto led 
an expedition to Italy, and renewed in Rome the 
imperial office which had first been founded by 
Charlemagne. Otto's empire embraced Germany and 
Italy, and was henceforth styled the Holy Roman 



2i6 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY 

Empire of the German Nation. It would have been 
far better for Germany, if Otto the Great and his 
successors had remained content to keep the natural 
barrier of the Alps as their southern boundary. The 
Italians revolted constantly against the German suze- 
rainty, and the emperors wasted their strength in 
numerous campaigns, by which they enforced the 
unwilling submission of their southern subjects. 
During the emperor's long absences from Germany, 
the feudal nobility grew independent and arrogant. 
At last, by the middle of the thirteenth century, 
Germany was divided into two hundred and seventy- 
six virtually independent states. The emperors had 
practically lost their German kingdom, while they 
pursued the phantom of the Roman empire. 

The Struggle between the Emperors and the Popes. — 
We have seen that the Popes at Rome were early 
recognized as the spiritual heads of the West. The 
emperors considered themselves supreme in temporal 
matters. A dispute arose between the Emperors and 
the Popes, who of the two should rank higher. The 
adherents of the papacy claimed that the Popes must 
stand above the Emperors, because they were the 
representatives of God on earth. God, they said, 
had put two great powers on earth, just as he placed 
two great lights in the heavens. And just as the 
moon was smaller than the sun, so the Emperor 
should obey the Pope. These and other arguments, 
mostly taken from the Bible, were answered by 
arguments, also mosdy scriptural, in support of 
the imperial claims. The Emperors also maintained 
that the Popes were their vassals, because Pipin and 



2i8 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY 

Charlemagne had first granted land to the Roman 
bishops. 

The dispute gradually divided a great part of 
Western Europe into two camps, the supporters of 
the Emperors and the supporters of the Popes. The 
papacy had a strong weapon in the religious faith 
of the people, while the Emperors were weakened 
by revolts of the feudal lords. The power of Rome 
was much advanced by the reforms of Pope Gregory 
VIL After having administered the temporal affairs 
of five successive Popes, he was himself elevated to 
the pontifical^ chair (1073- 1080). Christian priests 
had long believed that celibacy ( = having no wife) 
was pleasing to God. But few of them ^ cared to 
practise celibacy. Gregory VII. recognized that the 
Church would be immensely strengthened if its priests 
had no family cares to divert them from their spiritual 
duties. He therefore enforced celibacy for all the 
clergy. Furthermore, he decreed that ecclesiastics 
( = officers of the Church) should get their offices only 
from the Pope, and never from a temporal lord. As 
the higher ecclesiastics were also feudal holders of 
nearly half the lands of Western Europe, the obser- 
vance of this decree would have made the Pope more 
powerful than any other sovereign. 

The German Emperor Henry IV. refused to 
recognize Gregory's decree, and called a council which 
formally deposed the Pope from his office. Gregory 

1 ' Pontifical chair,' the throne of the Pope, who is also called a 
' pontifif.' This title is derived from the ancient Roman ' Pontifex,' the 
highest priest in Rome. 

'^This refers to the secular clergy. The numerous monks, of variotis 
orders, were all celibates. 



EUROPEAN HISTORY 219 

in turn excommunicated the Emperor. For the 
mediaeval mind there was hardly a more terrible 
punishment than excommunication. It meant that 
a person was expelled from the Church, and that 
any one who befriended him was also guilty of a 
dreadful sin, which would bring his soul to hell. 
Henry IV. soon lost all his supporters. His 
opponents revolted openly, and his friends no longer 
dared to help him. His power withered before the 
curse of the Pope. In his despair the proud Emperor 
went on a lonely pilgrimage across the Alps, to beg 
the Pope's forgiveness. Gregory was staying at the 
castle of Canossa in Northern Italy. The Emperor, 
barefoot and dressed in sackcloth, waited for three 
days and nights in the court-yard of the castle, before 
the Pope received him. Then Gregory removed 
the sentence of excommunication. 

The Supremacy of the Papacy. — The struggle between 
the empire and the papacy formed the greater part 
of the history of the noted House of Hohenstaufen 
(i 138-1254). This dynasty finally was ruined, while 
the papacy rose supreme over all Christendom. 
Most of the European sovereigns in the thirteenth 
century accepted the Pope as their overlord. Kings 
were the vassals of the Roman Pontiff, and Rome 
again was the capital of the Western world. 

Decline of the Papal Power. — The power of the 
Pope over the Catholics rested entirely on their 
faith in his divine authority. This popular faith 
suffered a rude shock by the so-called 'Great Schism' 
in 1378. (Schism in church history means a division.) 
Since 1309 the Popes had fallen under French 



220 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY 

influence, and had removed their residence to Avignon, 
in Southern France. The ItaHans protested vainly, 
and at last elected their own Pope, with his residence 
in Rome. Both Popes now claimed to be the sole 
representatives of God, and the infallible heads of 
the Church. Since one of the two must needs have 
been the false 'sole representative,' many people 
began to doubt whether either of them was really 
so near to God. The temporal power of the Popes 
vv^as much weakened by the schism. The various 
kings and princes soon after freed themselves from 
papal interference in their governments. But in 
purely religious matters the supreme authority of the 
papacy was maintained until the Reformation, early in 
the sixteenth century. 

The Seljukian Turks. — The Turks are a race which 
has spread in its various branches across all Asia, 
forminof a connecting^ link between the Chinese East 
and the European West. Turkish history, though 
of great importance, is little understood, and too 
complicated for simple presentation in this book. 

During the eighth century Islam spread among 
the Turks. As a warlike people, they gladly carried 
out the command of Mohammed to extend the faith 
by the sword. 

Under the dynasty of the Selj^ckzans, Turkish hordes 
overran the greater part of Western Asia during the 
eleventh century. They took Bagdad from the Abba- 
sides, leaving to the Caliphs only the nominal religious 
authority. They also took Asia Minor from the Greek 
emperors, and drove the Egyptian Caliphs out of 
Syria. Their occupation of Jerusale77i, the holy city 



EUROPEAN HISTORY 221 

of the Christians, and their attacks on the Byzantine 
empire, led directly to the Crusades. 

The Crusades. — The Crusades were military expedi- 
tions undertaken by the Western nations for the 
purpose of freeing Palestine from Mohammedan rule. 
It had long been customary to make pilgrimages to 
Palestine, the country of Christ, and the Arabian 
Caliphs had encouraged these pious visits. But the 
Seljukian Turks persecuted the pilgrims, and insulted 
the Christians by turning some of the holy churches 
in Jerusalem into stables. The indignation created 
throughout the Christian countries by the outrages of 
the Turks was the principal cause of the Crusades. 
Love of adventure, hope of glory and of plunder 
were also among the causes. In no case could the 
crusades have been carried out, had not the people 
been impelled by a religious fanaticism which has 
no parallel in history. 

Pope Urban II. roused the enthusiasm of bishops, 
priests, and knights through a wonderful address in 
a Church council at Clermont, in France, 1095. 
Ardent preachers spread the excitement all over 
France and neighboring countries. That same year 
uncounted multitudes rushed eastward without definite 
plans or proper organization. The deluded fanatics 
never reached the Holy Land, but perished miserably 
on the march. 

Between the years 1096 and 1270 eight organized 
Crusades were undertaken. The first one ended in 
the capture of Jerusalem. Godfrey of Bouillon, the 
most valiant of the leaders, was put over the kingdom 
of Jerusalem, with the title ' Defender of the Holy 



222 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY 

Sepulchre.' All the succeeding Crusades were failures. 
In 1 1 87 Saladin, Sultan of Egypt, reconquered 
Jerusalem. In the third Crusade three sovereig-ns 
of Europe took part : Frederick Barbarossa, the most 
noted emperor of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, king 
Philip Augustus of France, and Richard I. of England. 
The emperor Frederick died in Asia Minor, and 
most of his followers then lost heart, and returned 
home to Germany. The fine armies and the 
undoubted valor of the other two kinos came to 
naught through dissensions among themselves. King 
Richard grew famous under the name of the ' Lion- 
hearted ' through his wonderful bravery. Saladin 
admired Richard very much, and finally made a 
treaty with him, allowing the Christians free access 
to Jerusalem for three years. 

Results of the Crusades.— As military expeditions 
the Crusades failed to accomplish their purpose. 
They proved the inefficiency of the feudal military 
organization. Several millions of lives were lost in 
the vain struggles for the tomb of Christ. But the 
Crusades produced other results of historic importance, 
(i) They acquainted the Western people with the 
superior learning, arts, and industry of the Byzantines 
and Saracens. The civilization of Western Europe 
benefited from these new sources of culture. {2) The 
trade between East and West was immensely in- 
creased. The commercial cities of Venice and Genoa, 
in Italy, laid the foundations of their wealth and 
power during the Crusades. (3) The opening up 
of the near East also roused a geographical interest 
in more distant countries, the sources of silk, spices, 



EUROPEAN HISTORY 223 

and ivory, which formed the most valuable staples 
of trade. The Venetian Marco Polo penetrated 
to the great silk country, China, and gave to the 
West the first clear account of that empire. (4) The 
Crusades reacted in various ways on the political 
condition of Western Europe. They lessened the 
power of the feudal lords, because many great families 
were ruined financially, or died out altogether. In 
France and England the royal power was the gainer 
by these losses of the feudal nobility. Elsewhere, 
notably in Germany and Italy, the cities profited by 
the ruin of the nobles. Finally, the period of the 
Crusades was also that of the deepest and most general 
superstition. The Papacy and the Church grew 
rich and powerful through the bequests of dead 
crusaders, and through the countless gifts of devout 
worshippers. 



CHAPTER XIX 

THE MONGOL CONQUESTS AND THE OTTOMAN 
EMPIRE 

The Mongols. — The name Mongols includes nume- 
rous nomadic tribes centering in Mongolia, and 
extending far to the north and west of that country. 
They live in felt tents, and their principal work is 
cattle-raising. Large flocks of sheep, camels, horses, 
and cows form their wealth. Their food consists 
mainly of meat, milk, butter, and cheese. Being 
northern Buddhists, they recognize the Dalai Lama 
in Lassa as their spiritual head. 

Jenghiz Khan. — The early history of the Mongols 
is little known. They rose suddenly into a world 
power under the leadership of the great chieftain 
Temtcjin, who was born in 1162. He united the 
tribes of Central and Eastern Asia, and finished 
the conquest of North China in 1215. This was 
under the Kin dynasty. When a priest prophesied 
for him the conquest of the world (as the oracle of 
Ammon had done for Alexander the Great), he 
assumed the title Jenghiz Khan, or ' Universal Sove- 
reign.' During the following years he conquered 
Western Mongolia and Turkestan, with an army of 
700,000 men. Samarkand and other large cities 



G.H. 



226 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY 

were burned, with the loss of over 200,000 lives. 
One of Jenghiz Khan's sons conquered Southern 
Russia to the river Dnieper. Temujin was planning 
further conquests, when he died in 1227. He divided 
the empire among his four sons, of whom Okkodai, 
the ruler of China, was chosen as Great Khan. 

Invasion of Europe. — Okkodai sent his nephew Batu 
with an immense army to continue the subjugation 
of the western countries. During the years 1237- 
1240 the Tartar hordes devastated Russia, took the 
o-reat towns of Moscow and Kiev, and advanced to 
the borders of Germany. In 1241 they defeated the 
united armies of the Poles and the German knights, 
in Silesia, turned most of Hungary into a desert, and 
sent marauding parties to the coast of the Adriatic. 
The inefficiency of the feudal armies, and the lament- 
able quarrel between Emperor and Pope, which divided 
the European princes against themselves, make it seem 
quite probable that the Mongols could have advanced 
to the Atlantic. Fortunately Batu withdrew towards 
the Volga, when he heard of the sudden death of 
Okkodai in December, 1241. 

The Yuan Dynasty. — The conquest of China was 
completed by the overthrow of the Southern Sung 
dynasty in 1280. Kublai Khan, the grandson of 
Temujin, and fourth Great Khan, was recognized as 
emperor of all China, and so became the founder of 
the Yuan dynasty, which held sway over the Middle 
Kingdom until 1368. 

Conquest of Persia and Mesopotamia. — A younger 
brother of Kublai, named Hulagu, set out to conquer 
the Mohammedan countries of the West. Hulagu 



THE MONGOL CONQUESTS 227 

sympathized with the Christians, and offered to co- 
operate with the French king St. Louis, who was 
just then engaged in the seventh Crusade (1249- 
1254). If St. Louis had made a poHtic use of the 
proffered alliance, the rule of Islam in Syria and 
Egypt would have been overthrown, and Jerusalem 
would have been opened to Christian pilgrims. But 
the French king blindly threw away his chance, by 
sending a disrespectful reply to the Mongol Khan. 
While the seventh Crusade ended in the capture of 
the king and all his army by the Egyptians, the 
Mongols carried everything before them in Persia 
and Mesopotamia. In 1258 the last Abbasid Caliph 
surrendered Bagdad to the victorious Hulagu. 

Greatest Extent of the Mongol Empire, and Further 
Plans of Conquest. — Taken all together, the depen- 
dencies of the Great Khan in Peking ^ formed the 
largest empire in the world's history. All of present 
China, Korea, outer Mongolia and Southern Siberia, 
Turkestan, and Asia west of India, Southern Russia 
and Hungary, looked to Peking as their capital. 
Kublai's expeditions against Indo-China and Annam 
failed on account of the hot climate, which wasted his 
armies by disease. In 1274 Kublai Khan sent a fleet 
of nine hundred vessels, carrying seventy thousand 
Chinese and Koreans, and thirty thousand Mongols, 
across the sea for a descent on Japan. A violent storm 
wrecked the fleet, and the survivors of the disaster 
were put to death or sold as slaves by the Japanese. 

Break-up of the Mongol Empire. — The huge Mongol 

^The Mongols and foreigners called the capital by its Mongol name 
• Kambalu.' Ruins of its walls can be seen north of the present Peking. 



228 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY 

empire had no inner coherence, save that of common 
tribal traditions, and of respect for the Great Khan, 
the recognized head of the ruling family. The diffi- 
culty of sending orders from end to end of the 
overgrown dominions was alone sufficient to cause 
their break-up into many independent Khanates. 
The division was hastened by the conversion to 
Islam of most of the western Mongols. It has been 
pointed out above, that Islam came to Northern China 
at that period. 

Russia under the Mongol Yoke. — Tartar Khans were 
masters of Russia for 250 years, until 1480. They 
lived on the steppes of Southern and Eastern Russia, 
and mixed little with the conquered people. All 
Russians, rich and poor alike, had to pay a heavy 
annual tax to the Tartar rulers. The Russian princes 
were allowed to manage their own governments, but 
held their office at the pleasure of the Khan. The 
princes of Moscow entered into closer relations with 
their Mongol overlords. They finally acted as chief 
tax collectors for the Khan, and in this way laid the 
basis of that wealth and power which later helped 
them to the throne of united Russia. The long- 
Tartar domination over Russia accounts mainly for 
the backwardness of her civilization. She became 
more Asiatic than European, and remained for cen- 
turies almost untouched by the progress of the 
western countries. 

The Mongol Empire as a Link between China and 
the West. — During the Mongol supremacy a lively 
intercourse was kept up between the Far East and 
Europe. Merchants and ambassadors travelled bach 



THE MONGOL CONQUESTS 



229 



and forth, either over land by way of the Pei Lu 
and Nan Lu,^ or by the sea route from Canton to 
the Persian Gulf and Bagdad. The most famous 
western visitor to China was the Italian Marco Polo, 
who was long attached to the court of Kublai Khan, 
and wrote a valuable account of his experience and 
observations. About 1292 
Pope Nicholas IV. sent 
the first Roman Catholic 
missionary, a monk named 
Jean de Montcorvin. 
Montcorvin was well re- 
ceived by the emperor 
Kublai. The new religion 
gained ground rapidly, and 
in 1307 the Pope raised 
Montcorvin to the rank 
of archbishop of Peking. 
Since the seventh cen- 
tury there had existed 
in China Christians of 
the Nestorian sect, who 
were quite numerous in the north-west These 
presently quarrelled with the Roman Catholics, and 
in consequence both sects were ruined. After the 
overthrow of the Yuan dynasty the strong national 
feeling of the Chinese swept away the remnants of 
Christianity. 

Timur. — Toward the close of the fourteenth century 

^Pei Lu = northern road, Nan Lu = southern road; the two historic 
highways leading from North-western China to Western Asia. They 
run respectively north and south of the Tien Shan or Heaven Mountains. 




230 



MEDIAEVAL HISTORY 



the chief Timur, or Tamerlane, a descendant of 
Jenghiz Khan, again brought half of Asia under 
Mongol supremacy. He conquered inner Asia from 
the Great Wall of China to Moscow, subjugated 
Persia, and overran India. In 1402 he invaded the 
Turkish dominions in Western Asia, an event which 
proved fortunate for Europe. The Turkish Sultan 

Bajazet was about to 
advance with a victorious 
army up the Danube river, 
when he suddenly had to 
return for the defence of 
his Asiatic dominions. 
In the terrible battle of 
Angora in Asia Minor, 
1402, the Turkish army 
was annihilated, and Ba- 
jazet himself was made a 
prisoner by Tamerlane. 
The Sultan of Egypt 
sought safety by recog- 
nizing Timur as his over- 
^'^'""'' lord. The great conqueror 

was preparing for an invasion of China, when he 
suddenly died, in 1405. His vast empire quickly fell 
to pieces. 

The Mongol Empire in India. — Baber, a great-grand- 
son of Timur, repeated the invasion of India in 
1526, and founded there the empire of the Moghuls 
(Mughals), which lasted until the supremacy of the 
English, in 1761. Akbar the Great (1556- 1605), 
Baber's grandson, extended the new dominion 




THE MONGOL CONQUESTS 



231 



over nearly all India, By tolerating all religious 
sects, and by employing Hindu nobles side by 
side with Mohammedans in his government, Akbar 
conciliated the subjected states to his rule. He 
partitioned the empire into provinces under gov- 
ernors or viceroys, and reorganized the army so 
as to prevent mutinies. Akbar must always be 
counted among the most successful and beneficent 
rulers in history. The emperor Shah Jahan (1628- 
1658) raised exquisite build- 
ings. Of his Pearl Mosque 
at Agra a historian, Sir W. 
Hunter, says that it is per- 
haps the purest and loveliest 
house of prayer in the world. 

The last Mughal emperors 
were bigfoted Mussulmans, 
and oppressed their Hindu 
subjects. They thus raised 
up against themselves a con- 
federacy of native warriors 
known as the Marathas, who by ceaseless attacks 
helped to overthrow the Delhi dynasty. The Moham- 
medan governors of provinces set up as independent 
potentates, and all India fell into that state of anarchy 
which enabled the prudent British with small forces 
to gain their splendid East Indian empire. 

The Ottoman Turks. — The last Asiatic attack on 
Europe was made by the Ottoman Turks, a branch 
of the same race which had provoked the Crusades. 
They were named Ottomans or Osmanlis after Osmaity 
the founder of the new Turkish dynasty, who estab- 




SHAH Jahan. 



232 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY 

lished himself in Asia Minor about the year 1300. 
Thanks to a fanatical faith in the Koran, and to a 
formidable |nilitary organization, the descendants of 
Osman found themselves masters of all Asia Minor 
and some adjoining lands by the middle of the four- 
teenth century. 

Under the Sultan Bajazet, given the surname 
* Lightning ' by his soldiers, the subjugation of 
Europe by the Turks seemed for a while imminent. 
In response to the appeals of King Sigismund of 
Hungary, the flower of the French nobility joined 
him in an attack on the ' infidels.' The gorgeously 
clad knights felt sure of victory, and made a dis- 
ordered rush at the advance guard of Bajazet's army 
near Nicopolis, 1396. But their superior arms pre- 
vailed nothing against the discipline and immense 
number of the Turkish forces. The Christian army 
was routed, and most of the prisoners were put to 
death. Only the timely attack of Tamerlane saved 
Europe from worse disaster. 

Under Sultan Mohammed II., the Great, the Turkish 
conquests were extended with renewed vigor. Con- 
stantinople fell in 1453, after a most elaborate siege 
by land and sea. The last Byzantine emperor, 
Constantine, sought a soldier's death in the midst of 
his enemies. During Mohammed II. 's reign the 
whole Balkan peninsula was conquered and the town 
of Otranto, in Southern Italy, fell for a while into 
Turkish hands. 

Suleiman I. — Suleiman the Great, surnamed by 
Turkish historians the ' Lord of his Age,' elevated 
the Ottoman power to its highest point. His rule 



234 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY 

embraced the years 15 20- 1566, a peri6d of the 
greatest importance in European history. Although 
the European states had outgrown the military in- 
fancy of feudalism, and possessed well-trained armies 
under able commanders, Suleiman yet succeeded in 
conquering Hungary, and in completing his control of 
the Eastern Mediterranean by driving the Christian 
knights out of the strongly fortified island of Cyprus. 
In 1529 he invested Vienna, the Austrian capital, 
with overwhelming forces ; but the desperate bravery 
of the defenders finally obliged him to abandon the 
siege. Suleiman's successes against the Christians 
were due to the political situation in Europe, which 
will be more closely described hereafter. Charles V., 
as ruler of Spain, Germany, and the Netherlands, 
held a power which was justly considered dangerous 
by his European fellow-sovereigns. When he defeated 
the French king, Francis I., the latter found his only 
salvation in an alliance with the Turkish Sultan, 
the enemy of the Christian faith. Hence came the 
invasion of Hungary and the attack on Vienna. 

Suleiman's empire included all the seaports of 
the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea in the east, and 
extended to the Atlantic Ocean in the west. The 
whole north coast of Africa, Egypt, the islands of 
the Eastern Mediterranean, the Black Sea, the whole 
Balkan peninsula, and Hungary were under Turkish 
authority. 

Compared with the other European states of that 
time, the Ottoman empire was well governed and 
prosperous ; trade, learning, and literature flourished ; 
historical writing attained high excellence. 



THE MONGOL CONQUESTS 235 

Decline of the Turkish Power. — Toward the close of 
Suleiman's reign began that decline which has char- 
acterized the Turkish empire ever since. The worst 
evil was, and still is, the corruption and venality of 
Turkish officials. In modern times the progressive 
European governments have gradually dismembered 
the decadent state, whose ruler is so aptly called the 'sick 
man of Europe.' Russia and Austria have enlarged 
their boundaries at the expense of Turkey. The in- 
dependent states of Rumania, Servia, Bulgaria, and 
Greece have been severed from the Ottoman govern- 
ment, with the help of the principal European powers. 
Quite lately Egypt, theoretically still a Turkish 
province, has in fact become an English dependency. 
The Sultans would have been driven across the 
Dardanelles long ago, if the great European states, 
notably England and Russia, could agree to whom 
Constantinople should fall. For it is well known that 
the power which holds Constantinople can also con- 
trol the Eastern Mediterranean, and perhaps the sea 
route to India. 



CHAPTER XX 

GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE TO THE CLOSE OF THE 
MIDDLE AGES 

The Italian City Republics. — During the early Middle 
Ages the towns throughout Western Europe formed 
parts of feudal estates. The exactions of the over- 
lords led to a long struggle between them and the 
towns, in which the latter were finally victorious. 
In Italy the conditions were most favorable for the 
cities, and they succeeded in freeing themselves 
entirely from their feudal obligations. At the close 
of the thirteenth century the political condition of 
Northern and Central Italy was quite similar to that 
of ancient Greece. Two hundred independent and 
self-governing city states owed only nominal allegiance 
to the Emperor or to the Pope. 

The wealthiest and most powerful of these cities 
were Venice, Genoa, and Flo7^ence. They were 
ahke centres of trade and industry, of learning and 
art. The commerce with the East, which flou- 
rished specially since the Crusades, was their chief 
source of gain. Venice at the height of her power 
was supreme over the Adriatic and over the whole 
Eastern Mediterranean. Her glory lasted until the 



238 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY 

fifteenth century, when the Turks shut her out from 
most of the Asiatic trade. When Vasco da Gama 
discovered the sea route round the Cape of Good 
Hope (1498), the whole trade with India and China 
was turned away from the Mediterranean, and decay 
fell on the great ports of Italy. 

The Hanseatic League. — It has been told above how 
the German feudal lords degenerated into highway 
robbers. The emperor-king was too feeble to main- 
tain order ; the trade and industry of the land were 
going to ruin. In this crisis a number of German 
cities combined into a league for mutual aid against 
the nobles on land and against pirates on sea. 
Hamburg, Luebeck, and Bremen were the principal 
members of the Hanseatic League, which presently 
included about eighty-five towns. They not only 
succeeded in protecting commerce, but forced the 
kino- of Denmark to observe their reo'ulations. During 
the fifteenth century the league enjoyed a practical 
monopoly of trade throughout Northern Europe. 

The Mediaeval Cities as Centres of Progress. — The 
Hanseatic towns, and most other big cities of Ger- 
many, France, and England, had the right of 
self-government. Their citizens, called burghers, were 
early trained to the exercise of political rights, which 
remained unknown to the mass of the rural popu- 
lation. It was in the towns, therefore, that those 
ideas of civil liberty were kept awake, which in modern 
times were to transform the down-trodden serfs into 
free-born citizens. 

The wealth accumulated by the burghers soon was 
applied to the encouragement of learning and art. 



GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE 239 

Europe still possesses invaluable treasures in the 
paintings, in the noble cathedrals, and the handsome 
public buildings, which adorned the free cities of the 
Middle Ages. 

The Beginnings of the European Nations. — We have 
learned that Charlemagne had the plan of uniting 
all Germanic peoples into one great nation, under a 
centralized imperial government. The forces of dis- 
order, however, were stronger than the will of one 
eminent statesman ; his death was followed by the 
chaos of the dark ages. Feudalism brought a little 
improvement ; but its division of sovereignty among 
many hundred petty lords made the growth of united 
nations impossible. 

Yet the foundations of the modern European states 
lie back in the feudal times. They are largely geo- 
graphical. The Spanish peninsula Is abruptly cut off 
by the Pyrenees mountains. Italy is walled in on 
the north and north-west by the Alps. Between 
France and Germany lie the Vosges mountains, 
which have always tended to separate the people 
east and west of them. England is severed from 
the continent by the Channel and the North Sea. 
According to these dividing lines differences in lan- 
guage and customs developed among the various 
populations. The people of Italy, France, and Spain, 
spoke languages descended from the Latin. Very 
similar at first, they gradually grew apart, until 
the common man of any one country could no longer 
understand a person from the neighboring country. 
When the treaty of Verdun was concluded, in 843, 
there was already a considerable difference between 



240 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY 

the East-Franks, who were almost wholly Germanic, 
and developed into the German nation, and the 
West-Franks, who were largely of Latin and Celtic 
blood, and became the French nation. 

The political development of the nations was chiefly 
in consequence of the geographical conditions. The 
principal feature of the political history was the growth 
of strong, centralized monarchies, at the expense of 
the feudal lords. This took place in Spain, France, 
and England. In Germany and Italy the royal power 
was prevented from rising to its highest influence, 
through the ambitions of the German emperors in 
Italy, and through the struggle between the Emperors 
and the Popes. 

Spain. — The Spanish monarchy had its beginnings 
amonor ceaseless warfare against the Saracens. Start- 
ing from the mountains of the north-west and north- 
east, several Christian chieftains slowly re-conquered 
the peninsula from the Mohammedans. In 1469 the 
two principal states were united by the marriage of 
Ferdinand, prince of Aragon, to Isabella, princess of 
Castile. Their joint forces were employed for the 
final expulsion of the Moors from Spain. In 1492 
fell Granada, the beautiful capital of the last Moorish 
kingdom in Europe. The Spanish kingdom quickly 
rose to be the first power in the West. 

France. — The last Carolingian ( = of the family of 
Charlemagne) king of France died in 987. The great 
nobles then bestowed the crown on Hugh Capet, the able 
head of the feudal family, which had long held estates 
larcrer even than those of the Carolinorians. At first the 
Capetians, as the new dynasty was called, had little more 



GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE 241 

than their royal title to distinguish them from their feudal 
vassals. It was in the interest of the Church and of the 
towns to support the royal authority against the lawless- 
ness of the nobles. By using well this support and their 
own resources, the Capetian kings steadily expanded 
their own domains, and broke the power of the nobles. 

From 1336 until 1453 France was "engaged in the 
so-called Hundred Years War with England. The 
chief source of trouble lay in the feudal relations of 
the English king, who held large provinces in France 
as fiefs from the French kinof. The Engrlish sove- 
reign did not like to be treated as a vassal, and the 
French king's legal right to treat him as such led 
to constant friction. The English King, Edward III., 
also claimed that he was rightfully entitled to the 
French crown, through descent, on the female side, 
from the old royal house of France. The two most 
important battles of the war were those of Crecy 
(1346) and of Poitiers (1356). In both the English 
defeated superior numbers of French knights by 
their new tactics of relying mainly on common foot 
soldiers, armed with bows and arrows. The English 
archers shot with deadly strength and accuracy, 
piercing through the iron mail of the proud horse- 
men. These two victories brought about a complete 
change in the methods of warfare. The feudal army 
of knights gave way to trained infantry, supported by 
archers. Within the fourteenth century firearms were 
also introduced, and against them armor was wholly 
useless. 

Joan of Arc. — The French were finally so dis- 
couraged by their disasters that they almost stopped 



242 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY 

their resistance. France seemed about to lose its 
nationality, and to become an English dependency. 
Just then a peasant girl, Joan, of Arc, had visions, 
in which she heard a message from Heaven, bidding 
her to deliver her country from the foreign foe. Her 
enthusiasm overcame the doubts of the king, and in 
1429 she was allowed to lead an army against the 
English. Belief in her divine mission doubled the 
courage of the French soldiers, while it confounded 
their enemies. The city of Orleans was taken, and 
the whole tide of the war was turned by the victory. 
The nation's savior received the name of ' Maid 
of Orleans' During the rest of the war the English 
lost nearly all their possessions in France. 

Louis XL (1461-1483). — In Louis XI. France had 
one of her ablest sovereigns. He found the feudal 
nobility laid low by the Hundred Years' War, and 
he followed up his advantage by every means at 
his command, fair or foul. He used to say, " He 
who knows how to deceive, knows how to reign." 
Louis was eminently successful in his policy, and laid 
the basis of the great centralized monarchy which was 
perfected by his successors. 

Charles VIII. (1483- 1498), the son of Louis XI., 
quite freed himself from the trammels of feudal tradi- 
tion. Instead of the levies of lords, he employed an 
army of paid professional soldiers, who were under 
his personal control. Toward the close of his reign 
he proved the efficiency of his army by the rapid 
conquest of the kingdom of Naples in Southern Italy. 
An alliance of nearly all his neighbors obliged him, 
however, to abandon the newly-won dominions. 



GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE 243 

England. — It has been briefly told how Britain was 
conquered by the Germanic Angles and Saxons, and 
how the eastern half of the country was overrun by 
the Danes. From 1042 to 1066 King Edward the 
Confessor, of the old English line, ruled over the 
island. After his death two claimants contended for 
the throne : Harold, Earl of the West Saxons, who 
was chosen by the leading English lords, and 
William, Dttke of Normandy , who claimed to have 
been appointed as successor by the late King 
Edward. 

The Norman Conquest. — William of Normandy was 
a direct descendant of the Scandinavian pirate-chief- 
tain Rollo, the founder of the Norman duchy in 
France. Since Rollo's time the Germanic Norsemen 
of Normandy had become entirely French in language 
and customs. In the year 1066 Duke William, there- 
after called the Conqueror, landed in England, and 
defeated the newly-crowned king Harold in the 
decisive battle of Hastings. Harold fell, and William 
was crowned in London as king of England. For a 
long time two nationalities and languages existed side 
by side in England : the Norman French king and 
nobility, and the Anglo-Saxon people. In the dis- 
tribution of the conquered land among his nobles, 
William displayed far-sighted statesmanship. He 
obliged the subvassals of his lords to swear an oath of 
allegiance to the king in person, so that he exercised 
direct authority over all the nobles in the land. In 
several other ways he also limited the power of the 
lords, thus strengthening the throne from the start 
and preventing the complete division of sovereignty, 



244 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY 

which was so disastrous to Germany. The Norman 
kings ruled over England until 1154. 

England under the Plantagenets (11 54- 1485). — The 
second king of this line, Richard I. the Lion-hearted^ 
spent all his resources on the third Crusade. His 
brother, ¥^mgJoh?t, has a bad name in English history. 
John had the misfortune of being involved in a quarrel 
with the Pope, just at the time when the Papacy 
enjoyed its greatest power. Being excommunicated, 
he humiliated himself and his country so far as to 
accept England as a fief from the Pope (i 2 13). From 
the beginning of his reign John's misgovernment had 
embroiled him with the barons. In 1215 the con- 
federated barons forced him to sign a charter, which 
defined the ancient rights and privileges of the people. 
Magna Charta ( = Great Charter) is the most im- 
portant document in the history of constitutional 
government. Among many other provisions it con- 
tained the following safeguards of popular rights : 
( I ) No freeman should be deprived of life, liberty, or 
property, save by legal judgment of his peers ( = social 
equals). (2) No taxes should be imposed, save by the 
Common Council of the re aim. 

The provisions of the Magna Charta were often 
disregarded by the tyrannical kings. But the people 
never forgot their liberties, and finally succeeded in 
having them permanently assured. 

Scotland and Wales are still in great part inhabited 
by Celtic people, descendants of the ancient Britons, 
called Welshmen and Scots. Both countries long 
remained independent of English rule. In 1282 
Wales became a part of the English kingdom. Since 



GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE 245 

then the heir-apparent bears the title ' Prince of 
Wales.' The Scots maintained their independence 
after a series of wars lasting from 1296 until 1328. 
In 1603 King James VI. of Scotland, who was partly 
descended from the English royal house, became king 
of England, with the title James I. Since then, 
England, Scotland, and Wales have remained united 
under the designation of ' Great Britain.' 

The Wars of the Roses (145 5- 1485). — The Wars of 
the Roses were a long struggle for supremacy between 
the Houses of York ^\\d Lancaster, two rival branches 
of the Plantagenet family. The Yorkists and their 
adherents had a white rose for their badge, the 
Lancastrians a red one. During the thirty years 
of warfare the English baronage was completely 
ruined. Half of the lords were slain, while most 
of the survivors had their estates confiscated. The 
kings profited by the losses of the feudal nobility, 
just as the French kings had profited by the Crusades. 
For a hundred years after the Wars of the Roses 
the English kings ruled as absolute monarchs, dis- 
regarding the Magna Charta. 

Germany and Italy. — The most important event in 
the mediaeval history of these two countries has 
already been mentioned. It was the revival of the 
* Holy Roman Empire ' by Otto the Great, in 962. 
The German kingship was elective. Usually, how- 
ever, the electors chose the king from the existing 
royal family. From the middle of the thirteenth until 
the nineteenth century the ^Electors' usually seven 
in number, were the highest sovereign princes of 
Germany. 



246 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY 

There were some great rulers among the German 
kings. The most notable dynasty was that of 
the Hohenstaufen (i 138-1254). The second king of 
this house, Frederick I. Barbarossa ( = Red Beard), 
was one of the most heroic figures of the Middle 
Ages. With a strong hand he upheld the ideal of 
German national unity against the rebellious vassals, 
while he also maintained his imperial dignity in Italy 
by six expeditions across the Alps. The decline and 
ruin of the Hohenstaufen in their struQorle ao^ainst 
the Popes brought that deplorable period in Germany, 
which is known as the ' inter7^egnum' (1256- 1273). 
There was no king then, and the wild nobles carried 
on endless civil wars. 

Italy was divided even more than Germany. The 
many petty city republics were just as jealous of 
one another as the Greek cities used to be, and 
like their Hellenic models they waged constant wars 
for self-aorgrandizement. In the Italian cities also, 
just as in ancient Greece, the extreme individualism 
of the citizens produced a brilliant but shortlived 
civilization. Florence became a second Athens, and 
could boast among her sons more great men than 
any other one place, save Athens, ever possessed. 
First amonof famous Florentines stand Michael 
Angela, a masterful genius as architect, painter, 
and sculptor, and Leonardo da Vinci, whom some 
consider t-o have been the most universally-gifted 
man that ever lived. He excelled in every branch 
of art and science then known. These and many 
other great Italians lived about the year 1500. 

German trade, industry, and culture all benefited 



GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE 247 

by the constant intercourse with Italy. Italian models 
also stimulated the intellectual life of France and 
England. 

Rise of Austria. — After the year 1438 the German 
crown, and with it the imperial dignity, became 
hereditary in the House of Hapsbiirg. Working con- 
standy for the benefit of their family domain of 
Atisti'ia, the Hapsburg emperors gradually acquired, 
as dukes of Austria, a power quite overshadowing 
that of any other German princes. But they did 
not succeed in enhancing the glamor of the imperial 
office, or in bringing Germany forward on the path 
toward national unity. This glorious work was done 
much later under the leadership of Prussia. 

Russia. — A new era began for Russia with the reign 
of Ivan III., often called the Great (1462-1505). 
The Tartar domination was ended, and Ivan had a 
free hand to consolidate around his capital of Moscow 
the territories of the minor Russian princes. Toward 
the end of his reign he assumed instead of his old 
title of ' Grand-Prince of Moscow ' the style of 'Auto- 
crat of All Rtissia.' Ivan's successors continued his 
policy of building up a personal absolutism, and 
gradually incorporated all the minor Russian govern- 
ments in the Muscovite monarchy. 

Under the reign of IvaJi IV. the Terrible (1533- 
1584), the Cossack \e.didiQr J ermack laid the founda- 
tions of the Russian Asiatic dominions by conquering 
Siberia as far as the Irtish river. Ivan IV. also 
introduced the beginnings of European culture in 
Russia, by employing foreign artisans, and by opening 
reoular over-sea trade with E norland. 



248 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY 

Intellectual Condition of Mediaeval Europe. — Compared with 
the feverish activity shown by the modern West in all 
departments of study, the Middle Ages were a barren time, 
and deserve their slighting appellation of ' the Dark Ages.' 
Between the ruin of Roman culture and the days of 
Charlemagne lies intellectual barbarism. Charlemagne, at 
the very beginning of the ninth century, founded schools in 
connection with churches and monasteries. Here Latin was 
taught, together with divinity ( = theology) and other bits of 
learning useful to priests. Latin remained throughout the 
Middle Ages the medium of all scholars, to the utter neglect 
of native tongues. 

After Charlemagne's death the schools grew very slowly 
to be something more than priestly seminaries. Beside a 
few Latin authors, the works of Aristotle, which had been 
introduced by Arabian scholars, were chiefly studied. The 
leading scholars after the ninth century were known as the 
' Schoolmen.' Their voluminous writings consisted mostly of 
speculations, which the authors themselves did not understand. 

The great mass of the population throughout Europe was 
illiterate, ignorant, superstitious, and credulous. Mankind 
went through life with veiled minds, as in a fog, blindly 
obedient to spiritual authority and incapable of reasoning. 
Religious impulses readily grew into fanaticism, which drove 
the populations of whole countries to the most unreasonable 
excesses. A well-known example is the Children's Crusade, 
which was made by many thousands of boys and girls for 
the deliverance of Jerusalem. Their parents did not stop 
them, believing that God directed the children. Nearly all 
of them perished miserably. 

In Italy the freer life in the cities was favorable to an 
early revival of Intellectual pursuits. The start was made 
with the renewed study of Roman law during the twelfth 
century. The University of Bologna soon attracted law 
students from all parts of Western Europe. Universities 
quickly sprang up in other countries, most of them being 
extensions of the old cathedral schools. The university of 



GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE 



249 



itive, original ;v^ ^ " ■ ' "-'..'. i^\<.^ 



Salamanca in Spain was a far-famed seat of learning. The 
university of Paris became the focus of European thought 
through the lectures of the brilliant Abelard, the first 
man who dared to attack the traditional teaching of the 
Church. 

The study by Italian artists and scholars of Greek 
classical works aroused a general interest in Hellenic 
literature and philosophy. The independent thought 
of the old Greek authors soon led their new Italian 
pupils away from the blind 
obedience to 
more inquisiti 
generation of men was bred 
up, which advanced the 
bounds of human know- 
ledge and skill in many 
directions. This great in- 
tellectual outburst in Italy 
is called the ' Renaissance ' 
( = new birth). It started 
late in the fourteenth cen- 
tury, and got an additional 
impulse by the fall of Con- 
stantinople, 1453, when 
many Greek scholars fled 
from the Byzantine capital 
to the Italian cities. The renaissance in Italy matured the 
finest masterworks of painting which the world owns. But 
all branches of art and literature rose to new perfection. 
Scientific inquiry also made advances, and led to wonderful 
discoveries. The movement spread to France, German)-, and 
England, everywhere rousing men's minds to new energy. 

The German Copernicus {i/i^j yiSA-?)) established the fact 
that the earth revolves around the sun, which is the central 
luminary in a system of planets similar to the earth. Until 
the discovery of the ' Copernican System ' all people had 
believed in the ' Ptolemaic System,' which taught that the 




Copernicus. 



250 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY 

earth was the centre of the universe. The Italian mathe- 
matician Galileo (i 564-1642) was the first to use a telescope 
for the study of heavenly bodies. He confirmed the truth 
of the Copernican system, and made many important 
scientific discoveries. As his works were considered sub- 
versive of Church doctrines, he was imprisoned, and was 
forced to abjure what he had written in support of the 
Copernican system. 

The men who were devoted to the study of Greek 
literature became known as the Humanists. The humanistic 
movement soon dominated higher education all over Europe, 
and has kept its place until the end of the nineteenth 
century. 

In religion the revival of learning led many men to doubt 
the correctness of Church doctrines, and to criticise openly 
some abuses in the Church administration. Thus the way 
was prepared for the Reformation, which agitated Europe 
during the first centuries of the modern era. 

The revival of learning was quickened by the improve- 
ments made in the art of printing about the close of the 
Middle Ages. The most ingenious invention in this line 
was made about 1438 by John Gutenberg, a printer in the 
German city of Mainz, He devised movable types, so that 
the letters used in printing a page could be taken apart and 
put together again for printing another page. The new 
process cheapened books so as to put them in reach of all 
except the very poor. By the aid of this improved printing 
press the pen became in fact a weapon more powerful than 
the sword. 

Printing, as well as gunpowder and the mariner's compass, 
seems to have been brought to the West from China. The 
first use of these three inventions cannot be clearly traced. 

The compass did for the bold sailors of the new times 
what the press did for the reformers. 



PART III. MODERN HISTORY 



SECTION I 

FROM THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA TO THE FRENCH 
REVOLUTION, 1492 TO 1789 



CHAPTER XXI 

THE PERIOD OF DISCOVERY; PORTUGUESE AND 
SPANISH COLONIES 

The Search for a New Route to the East. — Since the 
establishment of Turkish rule over the Eastern Medi- 
terranean, the Italian merchants found their trade 
in Indian and Chinese products at the mercy of their 
Moslem enemies. All the old trade routes to the 
Far East had fallen into Turkish hands. The wish 
to avoid the exactions of the Turkish government 
turned many navigators to the search for a new route. 
Beside the Italians, the Portuguese were most active 
in their daring voyages of discovery. The small 
kingdom of Portugal had been built up by successful 
warfare against the Moors. Its extension on the 
Spanish peninsula was prevented by the growth of 
the stronger monarchy of Spain. So the Portuguese 



252 



MODERN HISTORY 



sovereigns looked for new lands beyond the sea. 
Under Henry the Navigator (died 1463) the west 
coast of Africa was methodically explored. In i486 
Bartholomew Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope, 
thus reaching a point from which ships could easily 
sail on to India. Eleven years later Vasco da Gama 
landed at Calicut, on the west coast of India, and 




Vasco da Gama and the Zamorin. 

so completed that series of discoveries for which 
the Portuguese were rewarded with a commercial 
empire. 

Columbus. — While the Portuguese seamen strove to 
find a way around Africa, the Genoese Christopher 
Columbus devised a bolder and, as he thought, 
simpler plan. He believed in a theory then held 
only by a few educated men — namely, that the earth 
was a sphere. The people believed, and the Church 
taught, that the earth was fiat. Columbus expected 
to reach the East by sailing westward around the 



THE PERIOD OF DISCOVERY 253 

globe. His calculation was correct, save for the one 
error that he underestimated the size of the earth. 

For many years Columbus could get no one to 
believe in him. The government of Genoa, the king 
of Portugal, and the king of England all refused to 
give him ships for such a mad enterprise. At last 
the Spanish queen, Isabella, promised her support. 
In the year of the fall of Granada, 1492, Columbus 
left the Spanish port of Palos with three small 
vessels. 

On September 6th he left the Canary Islands, the 
westernmost land then known, and steered boldly 
ever westward across the vast Atlantic. The crews 
began to give themselves up as lost when after three 
weeks no land came in sight. In their despair they 
almost mutinied, but Columbus remained unshaken. 
The great reward came to him on October 12, 1492, 
when he landed on one of the Bahama islands. He 
also discovered Cuba and other islands of the group 
now known as the West Indies, and then returned 
home. 

Columbus never was suitably rewarded for his incalculable 
service to the Spanish crown. At first Ferdinand and 
Isabella showered honors and promises on the explorer. 
Later, however, they listened to the slanders of his enemies, 
and even ordered his arrest. From a third voyage to the 
New World he was sent back as a prisoner in chains. The 
royal pair felt ashamed of their ingratitude, but never made 
proper amends. The most illustrious of all discoverers died 
as a poor and broken-hearted man. 

The Naming of America. — Columbus believed to his end 
that he had discovered a part of Asia. He spoke of the 
natives as India?is, a name they have kept, though they are 



254 MODERN HISTORY 

called ' American Indians,' to distinguish them from the 
East Indians of India. The error of Columbus is also 
perpetuated in the name of the 'West India' islands. 
When it finally grew evident that a new continent lay be- 
tween the Atlantic Ocean and Asia, a curious chance fixed 
on the country the name of ' America.' Amerigo Vespucci, 
a learned Florentine, made a voyage to the coast of South 
America in 1500, and drew some maps of the New World. 
A few years later a German professor made a map on which 
he named the new continent America, after Amerigo. 

Portuguese Colonization. — When Vasco da Gama 
returned to Lisbon from India, in 1499, the king of 
Portugal assumed the title of 'Lord of the Conquest, 
Navigation, and Commerce of Ethiopia ( = Africa), 
Arabia, Persia, and India.' For about a century 
the trade between Europe and Asia, by v^-ay of the 
Cape, remained in Portuguese hands. 

The Portuguese conquest of the Indian coast was 
disputed by the Venetians and Egyptians ; for Alex- 
andria and Venice were still carrying on a considerable 
Eastern trade by way of the Red Sea. But the 
first governor of the vice-royalty of India, Almeida, 
shattered the combined Egyptian and Venetian forces. 
He eave the death blow to the commercial cities 
of the Mediterranean. 

From Goa in India the Portuguese merchants soon 
penetrated still further eastward. They conquered 
Malacca, appeared at Canton in 15 16, and presently 
carried on trade with several Chinese ports. The 
settlement of Macao, near Canton, established before 
1540, remained a centre of Portuguese commerce 
until it was outstripped by the British colony of 
Honorkong;. 



THE PERIOD OF DISCOVERY 



255 



The sole purpose of the Portuguese was to get 
profits by trade. They did not open mines, cultivate 
land, or encourage the development of new industries. 
Their career in the East was stained by treachery, 
cruelty, and even piracy. The bad behavior of the 
Portuguese made an unfortunate beginning of the 
relations between [^ 
Eastern and Euro- 
pean nations. 

Spanish Coloniza- 
tion. — The Span- 
iards were at first 
regarded as gods 
by the natives of 
America. The use 
of firearms, cavalry, 
and steel armor 
really gave the in- 
vadersa superiority, 
agfainst which the 
gentle Indians were 
quite defenceless. 
The most civilized cortez. 

aborigines were those of Mexico and of Perzi. They 
built cities, constructed bridges and aqueducts, wor- 
shipped in fine temples, and lived under regulated 
governments. When the Spaniards heard that these 
people were rich in gold and silver, they at once 
set out to rob them. Hernando Cortez captured 
the strong city of Mexico, and Francisco Pizai-ro 
overthrew the dynasty of the Incas in Peru. The 
bravery of these Spanish adventurers was just as 




256 MODERN HISTORY 

remarkable as was their cruelty and treachery^ The 
wealth gained by their conquests was beyond the 
dreams of avarice. When the last king of Peru 
had fallen into Pizarro's hands, the latter promised 
to release the prisoner on payment of a room full 
of gold. The gold, worth about seventeen million 
gold dollars, was paid, and — the king was put to 
death. 

Spanish colonists in great numbers soon settled 
in the newly won dominions. They practised agri- 
culture, worked gold and silver mines, and brought 
with them all the customs and institutions of their 
home country. The natives had to work as slaves 
for their foreign masters. When the Indians began 
to die out from overwork, black slaves were im- 
ported from Africa. Millions of negroes were 
gradually brought across the sea like cattle. Their 
descendants now form a part of the American 
population. The Spaniards occupied the West India 
islands, most of South and Central America, and 
a great part of North America, Their principal 
settlements were in Peru, on the Pacific coast, from 
where the silver mines sent a steady stream of 
wealth into the Spanish treasury. The might of the 
Spanish kings during the sixteenth century was 
chiefly maintained by the immense revenue from the 
American mines. 



CHAPTER XXII 

THE ERA OF THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION 

Causes of the Reformation. — The Reformation In 
the central and northern countries of Europe was 
a revolt against the supremacy of Rome, which led 
to the establishment of a reformed Christianity, 
called Protestantism. At the same time the political 
influence of the Papacy was fully cast off by the 
reformed countries. 

The beginnings of the Reformation are closely 
connected with the revival of learning. Scholars 
found that many doctrines of the Roman Church 
were not mentioned in the Bible. They considered 
the Bible as the original word of God, and believed 
the Roman Church to have done wrong in departing 
from that. At the close of the fifteenth century the 
Popes devoted themselves more to the profit and 
pleasure to be got out of their high of^ce, than to 
the religious welfare of the people. The Church 
abused the people's faith in order to get money. The 
believers were taught, for example, that the souls of 
their dead relatives were being punished by fire, for 
sins committed on earth. The fearful sufferings of 
the poor souls could be stopped, however, by paying 
money to the agents of the Pope. The agents in 
return gave written pardons for a certain amount of 
sins. These pardons or 'indulgences' had a bad effect 

G.H. R 



258 MODERN HISTORY 

on morals, making common men believe that wicked- 
ness could be made good by money given to the Church. ^ 

To sum up, the chief causes of the Reformation 
were: (i) The renewed intellectual activity, which led 
men to question tradition and authority in religion 
as well as in other fields of thought; (2) the revolt 
against the interference by the Church in temporal 
matters; and (3) abuses within the Church itself 

Extent of the Reformation. — Religious struggles 
dominated the history of Europe during a period 
extending from the start of the sixteenth until the 
middle of the seventeenth century. Germany was 
the storm centre from which the revolt spread to 
Switzerland, France, the Netherlands, England, and 
the Scandinavian countries. In all these countries, 
save France, the greater part of the population was 
lost to the Papacy. The terrible Thirty Years' War 
in Germany (1618-1648) marked the climax and 
close of the armed conflicts engendered by religious 
dissension. After that the religious element gradu- 
ally subsided, being replaced by political rivalries 
between the different states. 

The Reformation in Germany. — Long before the open 
breach with Rome there had been single cases of 
protest against the religious dictatorship of the Pope. 
But these minor revolts had been crushed with fire 
and sword. The first reformers having met with 
failure and death, it required supreme courage to 
challenoj'e the Church aoain. 

■^ This view of indulgences was never taught by the theologians of the 
Roman Church. According to their doctrine, pardon for sin could come 
from God only, not from the Pope. But the belief above described grew 
up among the common people, and the sellers of indulgences made use 
of it for pecuni-ary profit. 



ERA OF THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION 259 

In 1 5 17 the sale of indulgences was carried on in 
Germany in quite a scandalous way. Martin Luther, 
professor of theology in the University of Wittenberg, 
boldly denounced the practice of 'selling forgiveness' 
in a series of written ' theses,' which he nailed to 
the church door at Wittenberg. The printer's press 
scattered Luther's protest over Germany and the 
neighboring lands, creating intense excitement every- 
where. When the Pope Leo X. saw his authority 
endangered by the new teaching, he issued a bull 
( = papal edict) in which he threatened to excommuni- 
cate Luther. The latter completed his breach with 
the Church by publicly burning the bull. 

The Diet of Worms ( 1 5 2 1 ). — The emperor Charles V., 
who was a ofood Catholic, commanded Luther to defend 
his doctrines before a grand Diet ( = council of princes 
and high dignitaries) in the city of Worms ([521). 
For Luther, a plain man of the people, it was an 
almost superhuman trial to have arrayed against him 
all the splendor and power of Church and State. But 
he bore himself heroically. Knowing well his danger, 
he still refused to recant, and said, in conclusion : 
" It is neither safe nor right to act against one's 
conscience." The emperor had granted a safe conduct 
to Luther, under which he departed from Worms 
unharmed. But immediately afterwards an imperial 
ban ordered his arrest and the burning of his books. 

Luther's Bible Translation. — The reformer's friends 
saved his life by hiding him in the castle of the 
Wartburg, in Middle Germany. During his seclu- 
sion he translated the Bible into the German tongue. 
Luther's Bible version speedily became the most 



26o MODERN HISTORY 

studied household book, which has had a lastinof effect 
on later German literature. 

Protestantism. — By 1530 the reform movement had 
spread over most of Germany. Its adherents were 
called Lutherans or Protestants, because they formally 
protested against some imperial decrees in favor of 
the Catholics. Protestantism did away with monas- 
teries, with celibacy, and with many dogmas of the 
old Church. Instead of papal authority, it accepted 
only the Bible as the real word of God. 

Early Attempts to stop the Reform Movement. — 
Charles V. was anxious to maintain the Catholic 
faith in his dominions. Had he been able to employ 
his undivided forces against the followers of Luther, 
the revolt would have been nipped in the bud. But 
his wars with Francis I. of France, and the attacks 
of the Turks under Suleiman I., kept him away from 
German affairs. When at last the religious war broke 
out, the emperor defeated the Protestant princes, and 
imprisoned some of them. The new religion seemed 
doomed. 

But the Pope himself was afraid of Charles' over- 
grown power, and tried to preserve his own authority 
against the emperor. While the heads of Catholi- 
cism lost time in negotiations, the Protestants rose 
anew and almost captured the emperor. The latter 
now gave up the struggle, and concluded the peace 
of Augsburg {i'^^^). According to this agreement 
every prince and every free city in Germany could 
establish either religion. The subjects had to con- 
form to the worship prescribed by their rulers. In 
other words, the peace of Augsburg assured religious 



ERA OF THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION 261 



liberty to the states, but affirmed the principle of 
intolerance aoainst individuals. 

Charles V. (15 19- 15 56). — A well-known Latin verse, 
current during the sixteenth century, said, "Let others 
wage war, thou, happy Austria, make marriages." 
In fact, the Hapsbuig family of Austria acquired 
greater power by for- 
tunate marriages, than 
other dynasties gained 
by war. The most 
notable of their political 
marriages was that of 
the Archduke Philip 
to the daughter of Fer- 
dinand and Isabella 
of Spain. From this 
union sprang a son 
Charles, who became 
king of Spain, arch- 
duke of Austria, ruler 
of the Netherlands, 
and of several lesser 
dependencies. As 
lord of the rich American colonies he could proudly 
claim that the sun never set in his dominions. In 
1 5 19 he was also elected to the sovereignty of the 
Holy Roman empire, thus completing a power wider 
than any Western Europe had seen since the death 
of Charlemagne. 

Rivalry of Francis I. and Charles V. — It has already 
been stated that the emperor could easily have 
crushed the Protestant movement, had his energies not 




Emperor Chari.es V. 



262 MODERN HISTORY 

been diverted by two formidable enemies, Francis I. 
and Suleiman, the Turkish Sultan. Francis I. was 
an ambitious, warlike monarch, a rival who strained 
every resource to humble the power of Charles V. 
After Francis had lost the imperial throne — he had 
bitterly contested the candidacy of Charles for that 
dignity — he spent the greater part of his long reign 
in warring and plotting against the emperor. The 
quarrel between these two sovereigns kept Europe 
in a turmoil for a quarter of a century (i 521- 1544). 
Neither party gained any decisive advantage, while 
the Turks reaped their harvest in Hungary. 

In spite of his vast resources, Charles V. saw his 
dearest plans come to nothing. He could not crush 
France, and he could not extinguish Protestantism. 
After the peace of Augsburg, he became weary of 
his fruitless struggles, and retired into a monastery. 
The crown of Spain, with the colonies and the 
Netherlands, fell to his son Philip. 

The Reformation in other Continental Countries. — The 
Reformation was actively carried forward in Switzer- 
land by Zwingli, whose doctrines differed somewhat 
from those of Luther. His influence spread little 
beyond the boundaries of Switzerland, John Calvin, a 
Frenchman who settled in the city of Geneva, attained 
an international reputation and influence. His doc- 
trines found many followers in France, England, and 
Germany. The three great reformers, Luther, 
Zwingli, and Calvin could never come to an agree- 
ment over certain points in their systems. The 
doctrines of Luther were early preached in the 
northern countries, and Protestantism soon became 



ERA OF THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION 263 

the national religion of Denmark and Sweden. Italy, 
Spain, the Austrian territories and most of Southern 
Germany remained Catholic. The intolerant hatred 
felt by one sect against the other kept up endless 
animosity, which was ready to break out into blood- 
shed at the first provocation. 

The Reformation in England. — The course of the 
English reformation was dictated by the caprice of 
a selfish and arbitrary king. When Henry VIII. 
(1509- 1 547) came to the throne, he was, like his 
fellow-sovereigns, Francis I. and Charles V., a very 
young man. He prided himself on his ability in 
theological argument, and displayed his scholarship 
by publishing a tract against Luther. The Pope was 
so pleased with his royal champion, that he bestowed 
on him the title ' Defender of the Faith,*' which 
has been kept by the English kings to the present 
day. But the 'faith' of Henry VHI. was soon to 
be little to the liking of the Roman Pontiff. 

Henry's wife, Catherine of Aragon, was the widow 
of his deceased brother. Although marriage with a 
brother's widow was against the Church law, the 
Pope had granted a dispensation, declaring the union 
to be proper. Catherine was much older than her 
husband, and bore him no son. He tired of her, 
and wished to marry a young court beauty named 
Anne Boleyn. A divorce could be granted only by 
the Pope. Henry urged a divorce on the pretext 
that his union with Catherine was illegal, and the 
Pope, Clement VH., probably would have been glad 
to please the English king, had he not thereby 
offended Charles V., who was Catherine's nephew. 



264 MODERN HISTORY 

Anxious to avoid a breach with either sovereign, 
Clement VII. delayed the divorce question for years, 
until Henry lost his patience, and took matters into 
his own hands. By a series of measures England 
was forever severed from Roman control. The Act 
of Supremacy (1534) made the king supreme head 
of the Church of England. Of course Henry's first 
step had been to "marry Anne Boleyn. The religion 
which the English king prescribed to his subjects 
differed little from Roman Catholicism, except that 
the former powers of the Pope were in the hands 
of the sovereign. Under Henry VIII. the principle 
of religious intolerance bore its most curious fruit, 
in that Catholics and Protestants were alike put to 
death for heresy ; the former for adhering to the 
papal headship, and the latter for rebelling against 
the Catholic creed. 

Under the kings and queens who ruled after 
Henry VIII., the religious policy of England vacil- 
lated according to the views held by the various 
sovereigns and their advisors. The people who 
happened to have religious convictions different from 
those of the ruler, suffered severe penalties or death, 
unless they conformed to the prescribed creed. On 
the whole, the Church of England was made more 
Protestant than Henry VIII. had left it, though it 
never went far enouofh in the direction of reform 
to satisfy the adherents of Calvin. While the bulk 
of the population submitted to the State Church, two 
groups of dissenters always remained outside : the 
Catholics and the radical Protestants, usually called 
Puritans. 



ERA OF THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION 265 

Arrest of the Reformation on the Continent. — Durinof 
Luther's lifetime the Reformation spread so rapidly, 
invading even Italy, that the Papacy seemed to be 
in danger of extinction. The Church made the most 
strenuous and systematic efforts to defend its hold 
on the people, and did succeed in winning back 
many ' lost sheep ' into its fold. 

Four causes were most prominent as aids to the 
Roman Church : ( i ) The Dissensions among the 
Protestants made many people doubt whether any 
of their doctrines were correct. Since Luther called 
Zwingli a heretic, and since Calvin frowned on all 
non-Calvinists, was it not safer to remain in the 
united Catholic Church, which left no room for doubt 
of its doctrines ? 

(2) To disarm the criticism of their opponents, the 
Catholic leaders made a thorouo-h reform of their 
Church, doing away with recognized abuses. This 
measure is known as the Catholic Counter- Reform. 

(3) The Popes strengthened and extended a special 
court called the Holy Office, or Inquisition, which 
had for its duty the punishing of heresy. Persons 
suspected of disagreeing with the orthodox creed 
were examined by the Inquisition. If found guilty, 
they were usually burned alive, though still crueller 
methods of killing were also in vogue. The Spanish 
Inquisition has the blackest reputation because of 
the uncounted atrocious murders which were perpe- 
trated by its members in the name of Christ. 
However posterity may judge the methods of the 
Inquisition, it certainly succeeded in driving heresy 
from Spanish and Italian soil. 



266 MODERN HISTORY 

(4) If we characterize the Inquisition as a defensive 
and destructive organization, we must describe in 
opposite terms the society of the Jesuits, which was 
wholly aggressive and constructive. The ' Society 
of Jesus ' was founded by the Spanish nobleman 
Ignatius Loyola in 1540. Its purpose was to spread 
the influence of the Catholic Church by all possible 
means, chiefly by gaining a control of education. 
Through their discipline, which demanded unquestion- 
ing obedience from all members, and through their 
superior knowledge, the Jesuits became a most 
formidable religious and political power. Not only 
did they win victories for the Church in Europe, but 
they also spread the faith by devoted missionary work 
in foreign lands, especially in the Far East. Saint 
Francis Xavier was their most successful missionary 
in China and Japan. 



CHAPTER XXIII 

A CENTURY OF RELIGIOUS CONFLICT, 1555-1648 

Introductory. — The religious peace of Augsburg 
(1555) marked the final victory of Protestantism, and 
was in Germany the signal for a prolonged armistice 
between Catholics and Protestants. The period of 
peace, however, was only an ominous calm, during 
which a storm cloud gathered which was to break 
over Germany with terrible fury. 

Before the Thirty Years' War began in Germany, 
religious hatred kindled conflicts in other parts of 
Europe. Widely different as these wars were in their 
nature and their results, they all had the element 
of religious intolerance for their main cause. 

The Huguenot Wars in France. — The followers of 
Calvin in France were called Huguenots. They were 
mosdy members of the upper classes, and early 
associated with their relioious faith* the strivinof to 
obtain more political independence for the nobility. 
Francis I. burned many heretics at the stake, and 
his successor, Henry H., continued the Huguenot 
persecutions, whenever he had a respite from foreign 
wars. 

After Henry II.'s death, in 1559, the throne fell 



268 MODERN HISTORY 

successively to his three sons, who all were weak 
rulers. The Catholic and Protestant parties kept up 
a constant struggle for influence in the government. 
The Catholic party was led by the great family of 
the Guises, while the admiral de Colig7ty was the 
ablest Protestant leader. Between these two factions, 
but inclining more to the Catholic side, stood the 
widow of Henry II., Catherine de Medici, by birth 
an Italian princess. She always kept a strong hold 
on the minds of her sons, and at times enjoyed a 
practical control over the royal policy. 

Fired by personal ambition, gifted with a statesn:ian's 
ability, but without moral scruples, Catherine used the 
rival parties as tools for her personal ends. The most 
awful atrocities of a bitter civil war were largely the fruit 
of her intrigues, so that she can justly be branded as the 
evil genius of her adopted country. 

Open war began in 1562. After eight years of 
fipfhtino- the Huoruenots oained a limited freedom of 
religious worship. Their position was much improved 
by the vast designs of the Catholic king, Philip II. 
of Spain. This monarch had set out to crush Protes- 
tantism in the Netherlands, and to dethrone the 
Protestant queen, Elizabeth of England. Fearing 
lest the success of Philip's plans might make him 
so powerful as .. to put France at his mercy, the 
French king, Charles IX., inclined to a general 
alliance of Protestants against Spain. Admiral 
Coligny now was the king's trusted adviser, and 
the Huguenots felt jubilant. 

The Guises and the queen mother were in despair. 
Wholesale assassination seemed to them the only way 



A CENTURY OF RELIGIOUS CONFLICT 269 

to save their cause. A secret conspiracy was set 
on foot, and in one night nearly all Huguenots in 
Paris were murdered. Many were stabbed while 
asleep. This bloody crime is known as the Massacre 
of St. Bartholomew (1572). The murderous frenzy 
then spread to the provinces, where many thousands 
of Protestants were butchered. 

The king was filled with bitter remorse afterwards, 
though his mother tried to persuade him that the massacre 
had been a public benefaction. The attitude of the two 
chief protectors of the Catholic Church shows how com- 
pletely the gentle teachings of Christ were forgotten amid 
the religious hatred of that time. Philip II. congratulated 
King Charles in a letter which displays almost a feeling 
of envy that Philip himself had no hand in work so 
beneficial for the true Church. The Pope in Rome held 
a special religious service of thanksgiving for the massacre. 

The struggle continued until 1598, when Henry IV., 
a strong and able king, ended it for a while by the 
Edict of Nantes. By this order the Huguenots obtained 
equal political rights and a limited freedom of worship. 

The repressive measures taken against the Hugue- 
nots under later sovereigns were due rather to political 
than to religious motives, as will be set forth later. 

Philip II. — Philip H,, ruler by hereditary right of 
Spain, the Netherlands, Southern Italy, and other 
states, was after the death of his father, Charles V,, 
the most powerful sovereign in Europe, He made 
the spread of the Catholic faith and the uprooting 
of lieresy his chief work. His natural temperament 
was morose and tyrannical. His education had been 
that of a monk. Monks and priests remained his 
closest companions through life. Outside of Madrid, 



270 MODERN HISTORY 

the Spanish capital, Philip built an immense palace 
in the style of a monastery, the famous Escorial. A 
small gloomy cell in the Escorial was his favorite 
abode, and from this place of darkness he mis- 
governed the most splendid realm of his time, 

Philip fought Protestantism with all his might. 
The gold and silver of America, the genius of great 
generals, the services of the Inquisition and of paid 
assassins, were all used against the heretics in France, 
in England, and in the Netherlands. But all his 
bigoted efforts failed to turn Europe back to the 
Middle Ages. The spirit of liberty triumphed, while 
Philip ruined the Spanish administration, and so pre- 
pared the speedy downfall of his country. 

Philip II. and Protestant England. — For some years 
Philip was married to the Catholic queen, Mary Tudor 
of England, the daughter of Henry VIII. by his 
Spanish wife Catherine. On Mary's death Elizabeth, 
who was the daughter of Henry VIII. and Anne 
Boleyn, succeeded to the throne. Philip had hoped 
that the Catholic queen, Mary Stuart of Scotland, 
would become queen of England. His distress at 
seeing the island under Protestant rule grew to rage, 
when Mary Stuart had to pay with her life for com- 
plicity in a plot against Elizabeth. He now deter- 
mined to conquer England and to make an end of 
Elizabeth and her Protestant orovernment. An im- 
mense fleet, famous under the boastful name of the 
'Invincible Armada,' descended on England in 1588. 
The English sailors outclassed the Spaniards both in 
courage and in seamanship. From their smaller but 
quicker vessels they fired deadly shot into the high 



A CENTURY OF RELIGIOUS CONFLICT 271 

Spanish ships, sinking many of them. A violent 
storm wrecked most of the rest on the Scotch and 
Irish coasts. Spain never again was in a position 
to threaten England. 




Queen Elizabeth, 

Philip and the Netherlands. — The worst thorn in 
Philip's flesh was the spread of Protestantism in his 
own dominions of the Netherlands. The Low 
Countries or Netherlands were so called from their 
beinor situated below the sea level. The Dutch had 
won new and fertile land by building dikes out into 



272 



MODERN HISTORY 



the shallow North Sea, and pumping the areas inside 
of the dikes dry with windmills. Their patient 
struofS'le aoainst the ocean had steeled their courao-e 
and quickened their enterprise. The old ocean 
bottom inside the seawalls was converted into fat 
fields and pastures, while the harbors were crowded 

with merchant vessels ply- 
ing to ports all over the 
world. No other people of 
Europe could show such 
extensive manufactures or 
boast of so much wealth 
as the Dutch. 

Charles V. had dealt 
severely with the Protes- 
tants in the Netherlands. 
When Philip II. took over 
the government, he re- 
solved to extirpate heresy 
at all costs. The people 
would have submitted to 
a certain amount of re- 
ligious persecution, for toleration was not to be 
expected in any country at that age. But when 
Philip's regent joined to the terrors of the Inquisition 
a repressive government, which robbed the natives 
of their old privileges, the people broke out in 
open revolt. The Catholic churches were sacked, 
and priceless treasures of art were destroyed by the 
' image breakers.' 

Philip now appointed the Duke of Alva, an able 
but merciless Spanish general, as governor of the 




Philip II. 



A CENTURY OF RELIGIOUS CONFLICT 273 

Netherlands. Alva ordered all the prominent patriots, 
who had not found safety in other countries, to be 
executed. A special court, called by the people the 
Council of Blood, condemned thousands to death and 
confiscation of property. Instead of pacifying the pro- 
vinces, Alva's cruelties 
drove them into organ- 
ized revolt. 

William of Orange. — 
The leader of the revolt 
was Prince William of 
Ora7zge, also called 
William the Silent. 
He had been trained 
in the Catholic faith at 
the court of Charles 
v., and had been en- 
trusted with the orover- 
norship of three Dutch 
provinces. He took 
the lead in the protest 
against the tyrannical 
policy of the regent. 
On the arrival of Alva William escaped to Germany, 
openly espoused Protestantism, and gathered an 
army for the expulsion of the Spaniards. 

Now began the long, unequal struggle of the 
Dutch patriots against the mighty Spanish empire. 
It forms one of the most inspiring episodes in 
history. In vain did Philip send his ablest generals, 
commanding the best trained soldiers in Europe. 
They could inflict defeats on William and the 

G.H. S 




William of Orange. 



274 MODERN HISTORY 

Dutch burghers, but they could not beat them into 
submission. 

The Siege of Leyden. — In 1574 the city of Leyden was 
closely besieged by the Spaniards. No one could leave the 
town, and no food could come to the starving inhabitants. 
The fall of Leyden would have involved the ruin of the 
Dutch cause. When despair began to seize the besieged 
people, they suddenly beheld Dutch ships sailing across the 
fields to the relief of the city. The Dutch had broken 
the dikes and let in the North Sea. When the floods 
approached Leyden, the Spaniards beat a hasty retreat, and 
the city was saved. 

Rise of the Dutch Republic. — In 1579 the seven 
northern provinces by the Union of Utrecht joined 
into a federal republic, with William of Orange as 
* stadtholder,' or governor general. Tv^^o years later 
the new commonwealth renounced its allegiance to 
King Philip. Thus began the Dutch Republic. 

Assassination of William the Silent ; His Character. — 
Philip II. tried to win William to his side by promises 
of wealth and high office. When bribery failed to 
move the incorruptible patriot, Philip published a ban 
against him. " If any one, . . ."so concluded the 
ban, " should be found sufficiently generous of heart 
to rid us of this pest, . . . taking his life, we will 
cause to be furnished to him . . . the sum of twenty- 
five thousand crowns in ctoM. If he have committed 
any crime, however heinous, we promise to pardon 
him ; and if he be not already noble, we will ennoble 
him for his valor." 

In answer to this infamous document William 
wrote his celebrated 'Apology.' This was a kind 
of political manifesto, which was translated into the 



A CENTURY OF RELIGIOUS CONFLICT 275 

chief European languages, and in which William of 
Orange justified his own course before the whole 
world. He also denounced the treachery and the 
political crimes of the Spanish king in scathing terms. 
The justice of William's cause could not protect his 
life : after several attempts to kill him had miscarried, 
he was shot by an assassin, whose family afterwards 
got the promised reward. 

William of Orange is ranked, like George Washington, 
as the ' Father of his Country.' For nearly twenty years 
he was the soul and brain of the revolt, and his assassination 
really had for Philip the value of several victories in the 
field. His fortune, his life, and all his talents as a com- 
mander, a statesman, and an orator^ were devoted to the 
good of his country. Among the many base slanders which 
his enemies used to spread, one real fault is acknowledged 
by most historians : he is said to have used deceit in his 
diplomatic dealings. Even if the charge is justified, it can 
only slightly tarnish his fame as the maker of his nation. 

End of the Struggle. — Spain continued the war after 
the death of William, but the Dutch held their own, 
thanks largely to help from the English queen Eliza- 
beth. In 1648 the Spanish government formally 
acknowledged the independence of the seven United 
Provinces. The southern provinces, which now con- 
stitute the kingdom of Belgium, kept the Spanish 
sovereignty and the Catholic religion. 

Effects of the War on the Netherlands. — By a general law 
of natural development nothing helps men forward better 
than a well-directed struggle against great odds. War, with 
all its horrors, may prove to be a school for training national 
greatness and for preparing future successes. This was emi- 
nently true in the case of the Dutch fight for liberty. The 



2 76 MODERN HISTORY 

inherent fine qualities of the Dutch people were forced to 
an amazing development. Their industry and trade flourished 
more than at any previous time. The Dutch navy tore the 
best East Indian colonies from Spanish and Portuguese 
possession, and established an empire over sea. The popu- 
lation of the Netherlands increased in numbers and in 
wealth, while their standard of education was superior to 
that of all neighboring countries. 

The Thirty Years' War (i6i 8-1648) owed its origin 
chiefly to some unsatisfactory clauses in the religious 
peace of Augsburg. Calvinism had not been recog- 
nized in that treaty, and its numerous adherents had 
no riohts. One clause, called the ' Ecclesiastical 
Reservation,' demanded that all Church lands in 
Protestant Germany should remain Catholic, thus 
being practically withdrawn from the jurisdiction of 
the Protestant orovernments. The Protestants refused 
to give up the Church lands. While these and other 
disputes kept up the bitter feeling, the Protestants 
were losing some of their early energy. The Catholic 
counter reformation, on the other hand, had immensely 
strengthened its party in Southern Germany. The 
duke Maxiinilian I. of Bavaria and the emperor 
Ferdinand II. of the Austrian Hapsburg line had 
been educated by Jesuits, and were entirely under 
Jesuit influence. When in 1608 several Protestant 
states tried to strengthen their cause by forming the 
'Evangelical Union,' Maximilian shortly united his 
party in the ' Catholic League.' Thus Germany was 
sharply divided into two hostile camps. 

The Bohemian and the Danish Period of the War 
(161 8-1629). — In 1618 the Protestant Bohemians 
rebelled against the oppression of the Hapsburg 



A CENTURY OF RELIGIOUS CONFLICT 277 

government. With the aid of the EvangeHcal Union 
they were at first successful. But when the fanatical 
Ferdinand II. became emperor (161 9) he brought 
all his imperial forces, in alliance with an army of 
Maximilian I. and with some Spanish troops, into 
the field. By the year 1623 the Protestants were 
completely beaten, and their religion was extirpated 
in Bohemia and Austria. 

The sudden triumph of the emperor was a menace 
to the safety of the North German Protestant states. 
They renewed the war in alliance with the king of 
Denmark, but sustained disastrous defeats. Thanks 
to the genius of his general Wallenstein, the emperor 
gained control of all Germany. The war might have 
been ended now, had Ferdinand II. not issued the 
unjust 'Edict of Restitution' (1629), by which all 
lands affected by the Ecclesiastical Reservation of 1555 
were to be taken away from the Protestants. The 
confiscation of the lands was enforced by the licentious 
soldiery of Wallenstein, whose barbarities inflamed 
to the utmost the hatred of the Protestants. 

The Swedish Period (1630- 163 5) introduced political 
motives into the religious conflict. Gtistavus Adolphus, 
the king of Sweden, had hopes of extending his realm 
south of the Baltic, making that sea into a Swedish 
lake. The occupation of Baltic ports by the emperor 
was dangerous for Sweden, while military success 
ao-ainst the Catholics mig-ht realize the dream of a 
larger Swedish empire. Gustavus Adolphus landed 
in Germany with 13,000 men, a force which made 
up for its smallness by its iron discipline, and by 
the orenius of its commander. As a foreioner, the 



278 



MODERN HISTORY 



Swedish king could not get the hearty support of 
all German Protestants, although he was the sin- 
cerest champion of their faith. Despite the back- 
wardness of the princes, Gustavus Adolphus marched 
victoriously through Germany, and entered Munich, the 

Bavarian capital, 
as conqueror. 

The emperor 
felt helpless be- 
fore the irresistible 
hsro of Sweden. 
The best Catho- 



lic generals had 
I dlen, the army of 
he League had 
bsen dispersed. 
One man there was 
who could save 
Ferdinand 1 1, 
from utter ruin, a 
man whose mili- 
tary fame equalled 
that of Gustavus. 
It was Wallen- 
stein. But at the beginning of the Swedish war the 
emperor had dismissed Wallenstein, because it was 
rumored that the general's boundless ambition would 
lead him into treachery. In his distress Ferdinand 
now humbly begged the disgraced leader to. resume 
the command of the imperial forces. Wallenstein 
complied, on condition of getting dictatorial powers 
which practically made him independent of the em- 




GusTAVus Adolphus. 



A CENTURY OF RELIGIOUS CONFLICT 279 

peror. When the news spread that Wallenstein was 
about to raise an army, the adventurers and cut- 
throats of Europe all flocked to his banner, all 
anxious to share the glory and to enjoy the license 
which were coupled with his name. For he had 
been accustomed on his campaigns to feed the army 
by plunder, and to let his brutal soldiers rob and 
kill innocent people at will. 

The two famous commanders met in the murderous 
battle of Liltzen, in Saxony (1632). Wallenstein 
believed the battle to be won, after Gustavus Adol- 
phus had fallen from his horse, pierced by a pistol 
ball. But the Swedes drove home their attacks with 
redoubled fury when they learned the death of their 
idolized king. Darkness at last ended the contest, 
and Wallenstein had to retreat with the remnants 
of his forces. The war continued for two years 
longer, victory being mostly on the Swedish side. 
Toward the close of this period Wallenstein was 
assassinated, with the emperor's consent, because he 
had conspired to join the Swedes against the 
empire. 

The Swedish-French Period (1635- 1648). — The French 
minister Richelieu, who was conducting the govern- 
ment for King Louis XIII., had long paid subsidies 
to the Swedes. His policy had nothing to do with 
religious questions, but aimed only at the ruin of 
the Hapsburg dynasty. In order that the French 
monarchy might rise supreme over all rivals, Germany 
was devastated for thirteen years longer by the most 
barbarous soldiery. French generals now also shared 
in the work of destruction. 



28o MODERN HISTORY 

Treaty of Westphalia (1648).— The exhaustion of 
all combatants finally put an end to the war. After 
five years of negotiating, the celebrated Treaty of 
Westphalia was agreed upon among the various 
governments. This treaty was the most notable and 




RiCHF.I-IEU. 



far-reaching agreement that the European states had 
ever made. Its decisions continued to influence inter- 
national relations until the French Revolution. 

The religious toleration, which had first been pro- 
posed in the treaty of Augsburg, was confirmed, and 
•extended to the Calvinists. But even now indivi- 



A CENTURY OF RELIGIOUS CONFLICT 281 

dual liberty of conscience was not yet considered, 
the only concession being this, that citizens who 
did not want to conform to the state religion 
could emigrate within three years. The Edict of 
Restitution was annulled, that is, the Protestants could 
keep the ecclesiastical lands which they had regarded 
as their property since 1555. 

The treaty provided also for many territorial 
changes, mostly at the expense of the Hapsburgs. 
The freedom of the Netherlands and of Switzerland^ 
was confirmed. Sweden gained the right to admin- 
ister parts of the German Baltic coast. France 
received lands in Alsace and Lorraine near the 
Rhine. The Elector of Brandenburg (the state from 
which Prussia sprang) was indemnified for territory 
lost to Sweden by considerable grants of lands in 
Middle Germany. This was the first of a series of 
events by which Prussia gained in power, while 
Austria declined. 

Effects of the Thirty Years' War on Germany. — The 
annals of Europe tell no other story so terrible and 
disheartening as that of the Thirty Years' War. For 
Germany it was an indescribable calamity, without 
any good after-effects to condone for the sufferings 
of active warfare. The population was reduced to 
less than one half Industry and trade, arts and 
literature, were all ruined and forgotten. Some- 

1 The House of Hapsburg claimed sovereign rights over Switzerland. 
The liberty-loving Swiss revolted against the foreign rule. In three 
heroic battles, during the fourteenth century, they defeated the Austrian 
troops, and practically won their independence. The small Swiss com- 
munities owed their strength and their independent spirit to the protection 
of the Alps Mountains. 



282 MODERN HISTORY 

districts did not regain their former prosperity until 
two hundred years after the war. 

The political disunion of the country was confirmed 
and sanctioned by the Treaty of Westphalia. Ger- 
many was a great kingdom in name only. Every 
petty prince was recognized as independent ruler 
over his small territory, where he usually governed 
in a wasteful way, aping the absolutism of the neigh- 
boring French monarchy. The national greatness 
which was Germany's due by reason of her able 
people, her natural resources, and her central position 
in Europe, was belated through the lack of internal 
union until the close of the nineteenth century. 



CHAPTER XXIV 

A CENTURY OF ENGLISH HISTORY, 1558-1660 

Introductory. — The period of English history to be 
treated in this chapter is contemporary with the events 
just narrated. Thanks to her insular position, Eng- 
land was spared the horrors of religious war which 
shook Europe for a century. The country was free 
to take its own course, sharing in European struggles 
only in so far as it suited the government. It was 
due mainly to England's isolation, that her people 
were enabled to rise successfully in defence of their 
political rights, at the very time when absolutism was 
perfecting its hold over the down-trodden people of 
France and the German states. 

The chapter will be divided into three periods, 
dealing with (a) the reign of Elizabeth, (d) the first 
period of Stuart rule, and (c) the Commonwealth and 
the Protectorate. 

A. THE REIGN OF ELIZABETH, 1558- 1603 

Elizabeth and Mary Queen of Scots. — When Elizabeth, 
the dauo^hter of Anne Bolevn, came to the throne, 
most Englishmen were g-lad to be rid of the 
Catholic rule of Queen Mary Tudor and her husband. 



284 



MODERN HISTORY 



Philip II. Spanish influence was to be swept out of the 
island, and the young queen was to be the leader of 
a truly Protestant nation. Such was the programme 
of the Protestants, but not entirely that of Elizabeth. 
She certainly was obliged to favor Protestantism, her 
very title to the throne being denied by the extreme 

Catholic party, which 
had never regarded 
Henry VIII.'s marriage 
with Anne Boleyn as 
valid. But Elizabeth 
placed policy above re- 
licrion. She ordered 
the national Church to 
be so constituted that 
moderate Protestants as 
well as loyal Catholics 
should feel able to con- 
form with its creed. 
She wished to build 
up a united nation, 
rather than to keep the 
country rent asunder by 
religious strife. Her aim was accomplished, and 
she roused intense patriotism and devotion to the 
sovereign among her subjects. 

The papal party in England, which found its 
strongest foreign supporter in Philip II., wished to 
place the Catholic, Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots, upon 
the English throne. Through intermarriage under 
an earlier reign, the Stuart sovereign of Scotland 
would have been the legal heir to the Enolish throne, 




Makv Stuart, Queen of Scots. 



286 MODERN HISTORY 

in case there had been no successor in the Tudor 
line. But since the great majority of English people 
loyally supported Elizabeth Tudor, any attempt to 
set her aside could only be regarded as treason. 

Mary Stuart was a woman of remarkable beauty 
and fascinating temperament, which secured for her 
many ardent admirers. But during her youth she 
ruined her career by her strong passions. When her 
first husband, King Francis II. of France, had died, 
she assumed the crown of Scotland, and married a 
Scotch lord, named Darnley. It was commonly 
known that she had come to despise her husband, 
when he was suddenly murdered. Mary presently 
married Bothwell, one of the murderers of Darnley, 
so that most people believed her guilty of complicity 
in the crime. The indis^nant Scots rebelled against 
the queen and forced her to take refuge at the court 
of Elizabeth. 

The English queen ordered her rival to be held 
as a prisoner. So long, however, as Mary Stuart 
was alive, her Catholic supporters did not cease to 
plot against Elizabeth. Finally, a dangerous plan to 
assassinate Elizabeth and elevate Mary to the throne 
was detected, and Mary was accused of having 
countenanced the attempt. She was condemned to 
death by the executioner's axe in 1587. Her guilt 
was never definitely established or wholly disproved, 
and the controversy has produced a whole library of 
writings on this dramatic episode. King Philip II.'s 
reply to the execution of Mary Stuart was the 
despatch of the Spanish ' Armada ' for the conquest of 
Enoland. His total failure has been related above. 



A CENTURY OF ENGLISH HISTORY 



287 




Sir Francis Drake. 



The Growth of English Sea Power and Commerce. — 

Under Elizabeth's beneficent rule 

the English people attained to a 

material prosperity unknown to 

former reio^ns. Foreio-n commerce 

was vastly extended, and the 

Engflish flaof was carried to the 

most distant ports. The ruin of 

the Spanish Armada served as 

a special encouragement to the 

extension of English sea power. 

The sailors of the Elizabethan 

age were men of heroic mould, 

who could dare and do incredible deeds. The story 

of Sir Francis Drake still fires the courage of many 

a British lad. With 
three small vessels 
and a small band of 
fighting sailors Drake 
surprised the Spanish 
settlements in South 
j\merica, plundered 
and burned whole 
fleets and towns, 
struck across the Pa- 
cific while a Spanish 
squadron vainly lay 
in wait at the Strait 
of Magellan, and 
Sir Walter ra-.e,g„. brought his Immensc 

booty safely back to England. He was the first com- 
mander to complete the circumnavigation of the globe. 




288 



MODERN HISTORY 



The adventurous voyages of the EHzabethan sea- 
men did not at once lead to any notable results, but 
they prepared the way for the successful colonizing 
policy of later years. In the north-east the seaway 
to Russia was discovered, and regular trade with 
that country commenced. Sir Walter Raleigh sent 
colonists to the North American coast, but his attempts 
to colonize failed on account of the attacks of the 

Indians. Not until 1607 
was the first permanent 
settlement of Jamestown, 
in Virginia, made by 
Enolish colonists. The 
East India Company was 
incorporated in 1600, and 
thus the first step was 
taken for the later ac- 
quisition of the English 
empire in India. 

Elizabethan Literature. — 
The Renaissance bore its 
richest literary fruit in 
England during the reign of Elizabeth. The feeling 
of national greatness, the flood of new ideas brought by 
the Reformation and by the voyagers returning from 
strange continents, the enthusiastic devotion to the queen, 
and the general prosperity of the people, all combined to 
produce a marvellous outburst of literature. The Eliza- 
bethan era was to England what the Augustan age was to 
Rome : the golden age of literature. The mere mention of 
the greatest writers must suffice for the purposes of this 
book : William Shakespeare, poet and dramatist, is generally 
considered as the foremost literary genius of all countries. 
Sir Francis Bacon, philosopher, statesman, and essayist^ 




Shakespeare. 



A CENTURY OF ENGLISH HISTORY 



289 



founded the inductive system of philosophy. Before him 
the deductive system only was practised, which relies in its- 
search for truth wholly on 
reasoning. The inductive 
system demands that one 
should try to find out the 
causes of things by faithful 
observation of actual facts, 
and by experiments which 
will aid observation. Modern 
science rests on the inductive 
system, being based on a 
knowledge oi facts, the result 
of the arduous labor of the 
many thousand devoted men 
who have followed in the 

footsteps of Bacon. Francis BacoH. 




B. THE FIRST PERIOD OF STUART RULE 

Character of the Period. — King James VI. of Scot- 
land, the son of Mary Stuart, succeeded to the English 
throne in 1603 ^s James I., and thus England and Scot- 
land became united under one monarch. The reigns 
of James I. and his son Charles I. v\^ere filled v^ith a 
struoforle between king- and Parliament, which ended in 
the execution of King Charles, and in the temporary 
establishment of truly parliamentary government. 

The Divine Right of Kings. — Under the Tudor 
sovereigns many popular rights which had been 
sanctioned by the Magna Charta had been allowed 
to fall into disuse. By the decline of the nobility 
after the Wars of the Roses, and through the stress 
of foreign wars, the sovereigns from Henry VII. to 
Elizabeth had governed largely without Parliament. 

G.H. T 



29-0 MODERN HISTORY 

When they convoked Parliament, usually to get a 
money grant, that body was quite subservient to the 
royal will. Under these circumstances, connected 
with the example of royal absolutism in France, many 
people came to believe that the king held his throne 
by divine right. James I. compared the royal dignity 
with the power of God, and said that no subject 
had a right ' to dispute what a king can do, or to 
say that the king cannot do this or that.' 

Attitude of the Commons. — But the representatives 
of the nation in Parliament had never forgotten their 
rig-hts. After Elizabeth's rei^n there was no foreis^n 
danger or civil dissension to justify a continuance of 
Tudor absolutism. The great middle class of Eng- 
land, moreover^ had advanced in wealth and intelli- 
gence, and with their progress came the natural desire 
to assume that share of political privilege to which 
they were justly entitled. The farmers, manufacturers, 
and merchants, who paid most of the taxes, asserted 
their right to determine through their representatives 
in Parliament how those taxes should be collected. 

James and the Parliament. — This and other claims 
of the Parliament were disdainfully denied by King 
James. Several times he summoned Parliament in 
order to 2"et a Qrrant of taxes. The Commons each time 
formally asserted their privileges, with the invariable 
result that their sessions were dissolved by the king. 

The Religious Policy of James I. — James disliked the 
Puritans, because they were too democratic in politics. 
When more than eight hundred clergymen petitioned 
him for abolition of Catholic rites in the state church, 
he refused their request. All dissenters were strictly 



A CENTURY OF ENGLISH HISTORY 



291 



punished. The king was favorably inclined toward 
the Catholics until, in 1604, some desperate Catholics 
prepared to blow up the king and the whole Parlia- 
ment with gunpowder. The dreadful * Gunpowder 
Plot' was discovered at the last moment. It resulted 
in harsh persecution of the Catholics. 

Accession of Charles I. ; the Petition of Right. — 
Charles I. continued the arbitrary rule of his father. 
Parliament violent- 
ly opposed his 
policy, and con- 
tinued to assert its 
privileges when- 
ever the king felt 
obliged by need of 
funds to summon 
it. In 1628 Charles' 
third Parliament 
drew up the famous 
^Petition of Right,' 
a document which 
was based on the 
principles of the 
Great Charter. Be- 
fore the king could get any money he had to confirm 
that it was illegal (i) to levy certain taxes without 
consent of Parliament, (2) to imprison citizens arbi- 
trarily, (3) to quarter soldiers in private houses, (4) to 
hold trials without a jury. 

Charles broke his promise to observe the Petition 
of Right, and managed to govern for eleven years 




Charles I. 



without assembling Parliament at all. 



During this 



292 MODERN HISTORY 

time he raised his revenues by illegal taxes, and 
imprisoned, without proper trial, the members of the 
House of Commons who had opposed him. 

Archbishop Laud and Puritan Emigration. — The mini- 
ster of Charles I. for religious affairs was Archbishop 
Laud, a shortsighted, intolerant man. He demanded 
the strictest observance of the state religion, and 
punished severely the dissenters who refused to obey 
his orders. At this time many thousand Puritans left 
their homes and emigrated to America, rather than 
submit to Laud's tyranny. Most of them settled in 
those colonies which are now known as the New 
England States of the Union. They established there 
the Calvinistic religion and representative govern- 
ment. While the king's authority in most of the 
colonies was upheld by a governor, the principal 
powers of government lay with the legislatures, whose 
members were elected by the people. 

Meeting" of the Long Parliament (1640). — Following 
the advice of Laud, Charles L tried to force the 
established religion also on his Scotch subjects, who 
were all ardent Protestants. When he met their pro- 
tests with force, the Scottish nation rose in revolt, 
and sent an army into England. The rebellion at 
once placed Charles in a dilemma from which he 
could not escape. To repel the Scotch insurgents 
he needed an army, and to raise an army he had to 
apply to Parliament for funds. But if he called 
Parliament together, that body was sure to upset his 
system of personal government. The occupation of 
Northern England by the Scots at last obliged Charles 
to give way. In 1640 he called a Parliament, which 



A CENTURY OF ENGLISH HISTORY 293 

has become famous in English history as the ' Long 
Parliament.' 

The Struggle between Charles I. and the Long Parlia- 
ment. — The Parliament soon went further in its 
hostility to the king, than its own members expected 
at the outset. Laud and Strafford, the King's favorite 
ministers, were tried for treason against the state, 
and executed. The levying of illegal taxes was for- 
bidden, and the king's arbitrary courts of justice were 
abolished. Furthermore, Charles had to sign a bill 
whereby the existing Parliament could not be dis- 
solved without its own consent. 

A good understanding between the king and the 
Commons might now have been restored, had not 
the king repeatedly shown that he had no intention 
to keep his word. In 1641 the Commons passed a 
resolution called 'the Grand Remonstrance,' in which 
they voiced their distrust of the king, and demanded 
that his ministers should be made responsible to 
Parliament. Charles rejected the demand. Shordy 
afterwards he went to the Parliament House with 
a force of five hundred soldiers, intending to arrest 
five leading members on the charge of treason, 
because they had aided the Scotch rebels. But the 
members had escaped beforehand. Civil war was 
now unavoidable. 

The Civil War. — In 1643 the king gathered an 
army of his supporters and took the field against 
the Parliamentary forces. The ' Cavaliers' as the 
royalists were called, at first had the advantage over 
the ' Roundheads! The latter nickname was given 
to the Puritan soldiers, because many of them wore 



294 MODERN HISTORY 

their hair cut short, while the fashionable gentlemen 
of the time always wore long hair. The fortunes 
of war changed when Oliver Cromwell, a colonel of 
cavalry, brought his ^Ironsides' into action. They 
were enthusiastic Puritans, all ready to die in up- 
holding their religion, and made into an invincible 
regiment by the discipline and the genius of their com- 
mander. They spent their free time in Bible study, 
and prayed before every battle. The charge of the 
Ironsides routed the Cavaliers in the battle of Marston 
Moor, 1644. During the following months Cromwell 
reformed the whole Parliamentary army according to 
the model of his Ironsides. The result was a second 
decisive defeat of the king at Naseby, in 1645. 

Next year the king fell into the hands of his 
opponents. By every kind of intrigue he tried to 
create party strife among the revolutionists, and he 
did in fact succeed in provoking open war between 
the Scots and the party of the ' Independents,' which 
was led by Cromwell. When it became plain to the 
Independents that the king constantly deceived them, 
thereby prolonging the bloodshed, they decided to 
follow a wholly violent and illegal course. They 
controlled the army, and could therefore overawe all 
opposition. First they expelled from Parliament 
those members who sympathized either with the 
Scottish party or with the king. This measure is 
known as ' Prides Purge,' because an officer by the 
name of Pride was sent to the House of Commons to 
arrest the objectionable members. 

Execution of King Charles I. (1649). — The reformed 
Parliament was entirely subservient to the wishes of 



A CENTURY OF ENGLISH HISTORY 



295 



the army. It constituted itself into a high court 
of justice for the trial of the king, and condemned 
him to death. A few days later he was publicly 
beheaded at London. All through the trial and 
until the moment of his death, he bore himself with 
the dignity befitting a king. 



C. THE COMMONWEALTH AND THE PROTECTORATE 

The Commonwealth (1649-1653). — The Commons 
now abolished the 
monarchy and set 
up a kind of re- 
public, called the 
' Commonwealth.' 
The new govern- 
ment really was 
a tyranny of the 
Puritan minority, 
which had the 
army on its side, 
over the rest of 
the nation. 

In Scotland and 
Ireland the royal- 
ist cause was 
strengthened by 
the horror of the 
people, when they c ::„:.!■.>. ell. 

heard of the king's martyrdom. His son, Charles II., 
was proclaimed as king of Scotland. The new 
Commonwealth was thus threatened from two sides, 
while the English royalists were ready to join any 




296 MODERN HISTORY 

forces which Charles II. miorht bringf into Enoflando 
Cromwell's energy rose with the danger. He speedily- 
crushed the Irish rebellion, and annihilated the Scotch 
army of Charles II. in the battle of Worcester. The 
young prince escaped to France, where he was hospit- 
ably received at the court of Louis XIV. 

The military successes of the Commonwealth were 
all due to the efficiency of the army and to the able 
leadership of Cromwell, The Parliament, on the 
other hand, was quite unable to cope with the 
task of government. Its members were lacking in 
patriotism, and open to bribery. In 1658 Cromwell 
personally charged the members with injustice and 
selfishness, and closed his angry address with the 
words, " It is not fit you should sit here any longer." 
A body of soldiers drove the members out, and Crom- 
well locked the doors of the house. With the forcible 
dissolution of the Long Parliament the last constitu- 
tional authority was swept away. 

Cromwell called a new Parliament, composed 
entirely of the most religious and upright Puritans. 
This assembly, generally called the ' Little Parlia- 
77ient,' intended to do its best, and did really carry 
through some minor reforms ; but its members had 
not the practical ability required to direct the govern- 
ment. Rather than see a renewal of civil war and 
anarchy, they determined to give full political power 
to Cromwell, the one man who could maintain order. 

The Protectorate (1653-1659). — Under the title of 
* Lord Protector of the Commonwealth,' Oliver 
Cromwell exercised a sort of dictatorship over 
England. He did not seek power for himself, but 



A CENTURY OF ENGLISH HISTORY 



297 



accepted it and used it well when circumstances 
forced it on him. He convoked several parliaments, 
hoping to restore a representative form of govern- 
ment. They were all inefficient, however, and 
Cromwell had to continue his dictatorship. Under 
his firm administration the 
peace was kept at home, 
while he enforced the 
respect of foreign govern- 
ments abroad. 

Had he possessed a 
son approaching him in 
ability, he could have 
founded a new dynasty. 
The title of king was 
actually offered to Crom- 
well a year before his 
death. His son, Richard 
Cromwell, succeeded him 
as Lord Protector in 1659 
weak and inefficient 




Charles II. 



But Richard proved 
He abdicated after a few 
months' rule, leaving an open field for a disastrous 
quarrel between the army and the Parliament. 

Restoration of Charles II. — Most Englishmen dreaded 
a renewal of civil strife, and were heartily glad when 
Charles H. issued a proclamation promising to pardon 
all revolutionists, if he were recalled to the throne. 
In May, 1660, the king landed at Dover, and was 
received .with the greatest enthusiasm. The 'Restora- 
tion^ as his return was called, showed that the 
people still favored monarchy, provided that it did 
not assume the form of tyranny. 



CHAPTER XXV 

THE HEIGHT AND THE DECLINE OF THE FRENCH 
MONARCHY 

Louis XIII. and Richelieu. — Louis XIII., the son 
of Henry IV., was a child of nine years when he 
came to the throne in 1610. At first his mother, 
Mary de Medici, acted as regent. In 1614 the 
young king was declared to be of age, but he never 
in all his life became energfetic enough to be an 
independent ruler. The character of his reign 
depended wholly on the character of his advisers. 
Fortunately for the French monarchy, the king fell 
under the influence of a highly gifted statesman, the 
Cardinal Rickelieit. From 1624 until 1642 this 
remarkable man was the virtual ruler of France. 
He devoted all his energies to the uplifting of the 
royal power. Towards this end he worked by two 
methods : First, all opposition to the throne within 
France was to be crushed ; secondly, the foreign rivals 
of France were to be weakened. 

Political Power of the Nobles broken. — While carrying 
out his task of making the monarchy supreme in 
France, Richelieu did away with the dangerous 
remnants of independence which many nobles still 



THE FRENCH MONARCHY 299 

inherited from feudal times. The most formidable 
opposition he met with from the Huguenots. They 
wished to break away from the royal government, 
and to establish a Protestant republic. Their principal 
stronghold was the city of La Rockelle, in Western 
France. Richelieu destroyed La Rochelle after an 
arduous siege, which he personally brought to a 
successful end. The Huguenots were allowed to 
continue the practice of their religion, but their 
revolutionary schemes were broken up. 

Richelieu's Foreign Policy was equally successful. 
Though he did not live to enjoy the humbling of 
the House of Hapsburg in the treaty of Westphalia, 
yet the French gains were entirely the result of 
Richelieu's work. He raised France to the first 
position among the European states. 

Administration of Mazarin. — Richelieu's successor, 
Cardinal Mazarin, held the post of chief minister 
when Louis XIII. passed away. All through the 
minority of Louis XIV., who was a child of five 
on his accession, Mazarin guided the French govern- 
ment. He followed the lines laid down by Richelieu 
in every particular, and with similar success. 

Personal Government of Louis XIV. — When Mazarin 
died, Louis XIV. decided to be his own prime 
minister. No state paper of the slightest importance 
was to take effect unless he had personally seen and 
signed it. He kept his resolution and centred in 
himself all powers of government, working with 
ability and great industry. In Louis XIV. the 
doctrine of the ' Divine Ri^ht of King^s ' found its 
foremost representative. He regarded himself as 



300 MODERN HISTORY 

more than human, and demanded from his courtiers 
personal attentions and flatteries which amounted 
almost to worship. The whole nobility of France 
was drawn to the splendid court at Versailles^ near 




Louis XIV. 



Pans, to live there in idle splendor as the king's 
pensioners. The great palace and the surrounding 
gardens at Versailles still bear witness to the extrava- 
gance of the court. The cost of this one palace — 



THE FRENCH MONARCHY 301 

Louis had several others — is estimated at a hundred 
milHon gold dollars. This fabulous expenditure was 
designed as the outward symbol of royal dignity. 
Louis best summed up his estimate of himself and 
his power in the famous saying, '/ am the State.' 

Colbert. — During the first half of Louis' reign, the 
French monarchy attained the highest point of its 
inner prosperity and outward power. This was due 
not so much to the king himself, as to the devoted 
labor of several able ministers, among whom Colbert 
stands first. As a statesman Colbert was the equal 
of Cardinal Richelieu ; but the former s name is less 
famous because he kept his merits quiet, giving all 
the credit for his successes to the king. As a 
merchant's son, Colbert had early acquired an insight 
into industry, commerce, and finance, fields in which 
he distinguished himself as a minister. By intro- 
ducing a strict system of accounts, he increased the 
public revenues, while actually lessening the taxes. 
He encouraged industries at home, stimulated foreign 
trade, and expanded the French navy, until it stood 
first in Europe. Colonization was furthered in 
Canada and elsewhere ; Louisiana was explored, and 
two great trading companies to the East and the 
West Indies were chartered. At Colbert's death, 
France possessed the greatest colonial empire in the 
world. 

Colbert's ambition was never for himself, but for 
the king's glory, and still more for the welfare of 
the people. Therefore he was bitterly disappointed 
when his best work was undone by the king's foreign 
policy. Tremendous wars exhausted the revenues. 



302 MODERN HISTORY 

and forced Colbert to provide new means by ruinous 
taxation. 

Louis XIV. 's Foreign Policy; His War with Holland. — 
Louis XIV.'s ambition drove him into four wars of 
conquest, which, by their waste of men and money, 
were ruinous for France. The second war was 
against Holland, in revenge for an alliance which 
that country had made with Sweden and England, 
and by which Louis had been prevented from con- 
quering the Spanish Netherlands. 

Before opening the campaign, Louis isolated the Dutch 
RepubHc by the payment of heavy bribes to the Swedish 
and English kings. Charles II., the restored Stuart ruler, 
disgraced himself in the eyes of Parliament and of the 
people by his understanding with Louis. The States- 
General alone were helpless before the French invading 
force. They were ready to buy peace with one-third of 
their land ; but the French made such humiliating demands 
that the Dutch renewed the war with the courage of despair. 

They found an able leader in William of Orange, a 
descendant of William the Silent. Like his great ancestor, 
this younger prince of Orange succeeded more by patience 
and persistency than by victories in the field. The Dutch 
again called in the ocean against their enemies by cutting 
the dykes and flooding large tracts of country. Spain and 
Germany sided with Holland against France, with the result 
that Louis largely lost the fruits of his earlier victories, 
By the Treaty of Nimwegen (1678) Holland secured very 
favorable terms, her territory remaining almost intact. 
Spain, however, had to give up some lands, which to-day 
still remain a part of Northern France. 

Arrogance of Louis XIV. — During the years follow- 
ing the Dutch war, Louis XIV. was by far the most 
powerful sovereign in Europe. He behaved arro- 



THE FRENCH MONARCHY 303 

gantly towards the neighboring states, especially 
towards Germany and Italy. When he had seized 
and fortified the big city of Strassburg in German 
Alsace, and otherwise insulted his weaker neighbors, 
the principal sovereigns joined in an alliance against 
him. 

Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685). — The 
French Huguenots were no longer politically danger- 
ous, but they disliked absolutism, and were thus 
regarded as natural enemies of the monarchy. 
Louis XIV. was a strict Catholic, and had a passion 
for uniformity in every department of administration. 
He resolved to do away with Protestantism, and 
ordered a systematic persecution of all Huguenots 
who refused to become Catholics. In the so-called 
' Dragonades ' rough soldiers (dragoons) were quar- 
tered in the Huguenot families, whose lives they 
made miserable. As a final measure the Edict of 
Nantes, which had afforded religious liberty to the 
Protestants, was revoked. No Protestant could there- 
after exercise his religion in France. More than 
200,000 of the best citizens left their homes with 
their families, rather than submit to such indig- 
nities. France thereby lost the most intelligent and 
industrious part of her population. The Protestant 
states and the English colonies in America received 
the fugitives with open arms. The Huguenot 
emigrants formed a most valuable part of the popu- 
lation of the future United States. 

The revocation of the Edict of Nantes was a bigoted, 
unstatesman-like measure. It was a political blunder so 
harmful to France, that one can question whether Louis XIV. 



304 MODERN HISTORY 

deserves the epithet ' the Great' bestowed on him by admir- 
ing contemporaries. All Protestant states became his 
enemies, and joined into a league with the Catholic sove- 
reigns of Spain and Germany, who wanted to get revenge 
for his robberies of land. 

The War of the Palatinate (1689- 1697). — War soon broke 
out between France and the ' Grand Alliance ' of European 
states, because Louis XIV. wished to seize the Palatinate, 
a fine German principality adjoining Alsace. The French 
commander tried to break resistance by turning the country 
into a desert. 100,000 innocent people were made home- 
less by this barbarity. When Louis finally made peace, by 
the Treaty of Ryswick, he had to give up most of the lands 
he had seized since the peace of Nimwegen. He agreed to 
these advantageous terms, because he wished to save his 
strength for the more important struggle that was sure to 
arise on account of the Spanish succession. 

The Spanish Succession. — King Charles IL of Spain 
had no child. All European governments were inter- 
ested to see who should succeed to the Spanish 
throne. They all adhered to a principle of inter- 
national politics, which has largely shaped European 
history during the last centuries, and which is usually 
summed up in the phrase, ' The Balance of Power.' It 
implied that no one state should become so powerful 
as to menace the safety of the other states. 

There were two candidates for the Spanish suc- 
cession : the one, Philip of Anjou, was the second 
grandson of Louis XIV.; the other. Archduke Charles 
of the Hapsburg line, was the son of the Emperor 
Leopold of Germany. The Spanish sovereignty at 
this time included the Spanish Netherlands and a 
considerable part of Italy. If Philip were to inherit 
these dominions, the French power would dominate 



THE FRENCH MONARCHY 



30s 



Europe. When Charles II. finally made a will 
naming Philip of Anjou as his heir, the European 
states at once joined to form a grand alliance against 
France. 

The War of the Spanish Succession (i 701-17 14). — 
The allies had two great generals in their service, the 
English Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene of 
Savoy. These two 
won a succession of 
victories, all notable 
in military history, 
of which the battle 
of Blenheim ( 1 704) is 
most famous. Louis 
at last was ready to 
make peace on terms 
most favorable to 
the allies. They ex- 
pected to humble him 
still lower and con- 
tinued the war. But 
the whole aspect of 
affairs changed by 
the deaths of the emperor Leopold and of his 
older son. The Austrian claimant, Charles of Haps- 
burg, thereby became emperor of Germany. Had 
he now succeeded to the Spanish throne, he would 
have revived the great Hapsburg empire of Charles 
v., and his power would have overshadowed the 
rest of Europe. England had no desire to build up 
a Hapsburg empire, and made peace with France. 
By the Treaty of Utrecht (17 13) Philip of Anjou 

G.H. U 




Marlborough. 



3o6 MODERN HISTORY 

was recognized as king of Spain, on condition that 
the kino-dom should never be united with France. 

o 

Austria gained the Spanish Netherlands, Sicily, and 
parts of Italy. The duchy of Savoy in North-western 
Italy was strengthened by the island of Sardinia. 
England profited most by the war. She got Gib- 
raltar from Spain, while France ceded Nova Scotia, 
and recognized Entjland's riohts in Newfoundland 
and the Hudson Bay Territory. 

Influence of French Culture on Europe. — Louis XIV. 
failed in his schemes of European conquest, and 
ruined his own country by the terrible drain of men 
and money. When he died France had already 
begun to sink from the undisputed pre-eminence which 
she held during the early part of his reign. But in 
other ways the French of the eighteenth century 
attained to a domination over Europe, which lasted 
well into the nineteenth century. They were con- 
sidered as masters and models in literature, and in 
all matters pertaining to dress, manners, and all 
the refinements of life. French became the polite 
language of the educated people throughout Europe. 
The rulers of the German states imitated the court 
of the ' Grand Monarch ' at Versailles, built French 
palaces, practised French politeness, and indulged in 
French vices. Even at the present day French is 
still the leading language spoken at the courts and 
in the diplomatic circles of Europe. Among the 
writers who made the re'iQ-n of Louis XIV. the 
classical period of French literature three dramatists 
are pre-eminent. They are Corneille, Racine, and 
Moliere. 



3o8 MODERN HISTORY 

The Mississippi Bubble. — Louis XV. was the great-grandson 
of Louis XIV. He came to the throne as a boy of five. 
During the regency of the Duke of Orleans the financial 
administration fell into the hands of a Scotchman named 
John Law. He established a national bank, and offered 
to extinguish the huge national debt left by Louis XIV. 
(about 3,000,000,000 francs). For this purpose he issued 
a paper currency, which had no real value, because the 
bank could not pay in good money even a small fraction 
of the notes issued. To make the bank notes popular 
Law founded a company for the exploiting of the American 
colonies. Shares in the ' Mississippi Company ' were sold 
to investors more cheaply for bank notes than for coin. 
By various tricks Law made the people believe that the 
Mississippi Company was earning large profits. Every one 
was anxious to buy shares, with the result that their value 
became very high. The government felt rich, and the whole 
nation fell into a fever of money making. When the in- 
evitable crash came, and the fraud was detected, the shares 
and the paper money alike became worthless. Thousands 
of people were impoverished, and the government was more 
deeply in debt than before. The whole transaction was 
called the ' Mississippi Bubble' because, like an inflated soap 
bubble, it looked glittering and perfect until it burst into 
nothingness. 

Decline of France under Louis XV. — Louis XV. was 
a lazy, pleasure-loving king. He fell under the con- 
trol of mistresses, among whom Madame de Pompadour 
was most notorious. She concluded foreign alliances, 
made and unmade ministers and generals, and threw 
the whole administration into a hopeless muddle 
of favoritism and corruption. In the Seven Years' 
War France sided with her old rival Austria against 
Prussia (see the following chapter). The issue of 
the war was most unfortunate for France. . The 



THE FRENCH MONARCHY 309 

defeats inflicted 011 her armies by Frederick the 
Great put an end to her prestige in Europe. More 
serious still was the loss of Canada, many West India 
Islands, and most of India, to England. French sea 
power was destroyed for a time. England stepped 
into the heritage of Spain, Portugal, and France as 
the ruler of a colonial world empire. 

Louis XV. was unmoved by these national disasters. 
He and his court foresaw that their course would 
ultimately lead to ruin. They did not care what would 
happen to their successors, so long as they could enjoy 
themselves. 'After us the deluge,' said Madame de 
Pompadour. And the deluge really did come under 
the following reign. King, queen, and nobles were 
then all swept to the same ruin by the terrible French 
revolution. 



CHAPTER XXVI 

THE RISE OF PRUSSIA 

Early History of Pf-ussia. — The History of Prussia 
is almost the same as the history of the Hohenzollern 
family. The Hohenzollern were powerful lords in 
the tenth century. During the fifteenth century a 
Hohenzollern became elector of Brandenburg, the 
country in which the capital city Berlin is now 
situated. 

Prussia was then a country to the north-east of 
Brandenburg, inhabited by Slavic people. After the 
Crusades it had been conquered by the Teutonic 
Knights, who forced the natives to accept Christianity. 
In the sixteenth century the knights elected a prince 
of Brandenburg as their commander, thus preparing 
the union of the two countries. 

During and after the Thirty Years' War the double 
ruler of Brandenburg and Prussia was in a dangerous 
position. His lands were contiguous to powerful 
states, whose sovereigns were always ready and eager 
to prey on their weaker neighbors. Sweden con- 
trolled the Baltic, and had a foothold in Northern 
Germany. The king of Poland was the feudal 
suzerain of the Prussian Duke. Poland was then 



THE RISE OF PRUSSIA 311 

much stronger than Brandenburg, and the PoHsh 
king would gladly have converted his nominal suze- 
rainty over Prussia into actual sovereignty. A 
succession of able princes made out of such weak 
and exposed territories the closely-knit monarchy of 
modern Prussia, the leading military state in Europe. 

From the Electorate to the Kingship. — Frederick 
William, called the Great Elector (1640- 1688), gained 
some territory by the Peace of Westphalia. He 
adroitly used a war between Sweden and Poland to 
benefit himself at the expense of the belligerent 
powers. He encouraged French Huguenots, who 
had fled from their homes, to settle in his country. 
Their skill was welcome for his aim of encouraeine 
industry and trade. He also began to abolish such 
feudal privileges of the nobles as interfered with the 
efficiency of the central government. 

The chief aim of the Great Elector's successor, 
Frederick III., was to get the royal title. This 
dignity lay in the gift of the German emperor. He 
was little likely to raise up a rival for Austria by 
bestowing- the name of kino- on the ruler of Bran- 
denburg. Frederick succeeded, however, in placing 
the emperor under an obligation by helping him in 
the War of the Spanish Succession. With the im- 
perial consent thus secured, Frederick was crowned 
king of Prussia in 1701. As king he styled himself 
Frederick I. 

Frederick William I. — This ruler, the second kino- 
of Prussia, has often been ridiculed for his oddities. 
His ruling passion was economy. Compared with the 
extravagance of Louis XIV. it looked like stinginess 



312 MODERN HISTORY 

With a hatred of laziness he joined a fiery temper. 
He used to walk about the streets of Berlin with a 
cane, and if he met any idler, whether man or woman, 
he sent that person to work with a sound beating. 

The peculiarities of Frederick William were only 
exaggerations of his fine qualities as a ruler. By 
his economies he could maintain a model army of 
70,000 men, and store up a large reserve in his 
treasury. He encouraged industry and frugality 
among his subjects, and so increased the general 
wealth of the country. His government was absolute, 
but it was a truly paternal absolutism. 

Frederick the Great (1740- 1786). — Frederick Wil- 
liam's son, so famous in history as Frederick the 
Great, had a gentler disposition and more varied 
talents than his father. The difference in character, 
combined with an obstinacy of purpose which both 
had in common, led to a total estrangement between 
father and son. As a young man, Frederick even 
tried to escape from his father's tyranny by flight. 
The escape was prevented, and Frederick's companion 
and friend was executed in punishment for the offence. 
Frederick witnessed the execution from his prison 
window. For a while he feared lest the enraged 
king might decree death for him also. In his riper 
years the crown prince got a better understanding 
of his father's merits. He took an active share in 
the administration, and completed his military edu- 
cation by serving through a campaign under Prince 
Eugene of Savoy. Frederick William's death found 
his successor prepared to carry on the government 
with undiminished efficiency. 



THE RISE OF PRUSSIA 



113 



War of the Austrian Succession. — Frederick wished 
to employ the army trained by his father for enlarging 
the Prussian boundaries. An opportunity came soon 
after his accession, when the emperor Charles VI. 
died without leaving a son. By an agreement called 
the Pragmatic Sanction the European sovereigns 




Frederick the Great. 



recoenized Charles' daughter Maria Theresa as 
rightful queen over the Hapsburg dominions. 

In disregard of the Pragmatic Sanction Frederick 
threw an army into Silesia, a rich Austrian province 
adjoining Brandenburg (1740). The Austrian forces 
were defeated. The Prussian robbery roused the 
greed of other powers. Spain, France, Bavaria, 
Savoy, and Saxony joined in the 'War of the 



314 MODERN HISTORY 

Austrian Succession,' all hoping to profit by the 
spoliation of the defenceless queen. Frederick with- 
drew from the war when Maria Theresa ceded 
Silesia to him (1742). England and Holland ranged 
themselves on the Austrian side, and helped the 
queen to gain a decisive advantage. By the Austrian 
successes Frederick was obliged to enter the field 
again in defence of his newly won province. In the 
Second Silesian War he again proved his military 
superiority, and forced Maria Theresa to leave him 
master of Silesia (1745). Meanwhile the general 
European conflict extended to the colonies, where 
that struggle between the French and English began, 
which was to end with the loss to France of her 
colonial possessions. But that result came later. 
The War of the Austrian Succession was closed by 
the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748), which recognized 
Maria Theresa as Austrian Queen, and her husband 
Francis I. as German Emperor. No power save 
Prussia drew any advantage from the eight years' 
war. 

Frederick as an Administrator. — As an administrator 
in time of peace, Frederick showed an ability and 
industry which of itself placed him foremost among 
the rulers of the eighteenth century. He is so often 
mentioned as one of the world's greatest generals, 
that his purely peaceful labors, which extended over 
thirty-five years in a reign of forty-six years, are 
easily overlooked. Like his father, he supervised 
personally all the details of government, working 
with superhuman energy. He regarded his royal 
calling as a sacred duty, and made the public welfare 



THE RISE OF PRUSSIA 315 

the aim of all his actions. He called himself 'the 
first servant of the State' At the close of the 
Seven Years' War his treasury still showed a surplus 
of thirty million dollars. (Compare the debt left by 
Louis XIV.) These funds were used for the re- 
building at the orovernment's expense of ruined 
villages and for helping new settlers in devastated 
districts. The draining of marshes, the building of 
canals, the improvement of agriculture, trade, and 
industry, all were furthered by the king. 

The Seven Years' War (1756- 1763). — Maria Theresa 
brought about an alliance between Austria, France, 
Russia, and Saxony, for the purpose of crushing the 
rising power of Prussia. Except Saxony, all of 
the allies singly had more territory and resources 
than the Prussian king. With most of Europe 
leaoued ao^ainst him, Frederick seemed doomed at 
the outset. England helped him for a while ; other- 
wise he stood alone. Durino- the war Frederick 
astonished all Europe by his military genius. Of 
the battle of Leiithen (1757) Napoleon Bonaparte 
said, "It alone would have sufficed to make Frederick 
immortal." The kinp"'s fortitude in time of danger 
was equally admirable. Twice his case seemed hope- 
less, but he still held his enemies at bay. At the 
moment of supreme danger a. new emperor came 
to the Russian throne, and withdrew at once from 
the contest, out of admiration for the heroic king. 
In the following year financial exhaustion forced the 
Austrian court to make peace. By the treaty of 
Hubertusburg Silesia remained with Prussia. Com- 
pared with the cost of the war — 850,000 men perished 



3i6 



MODERN HISTORY 



in it — its results were quite negative, and most of 
the participants gained nothing to balance their losses. 
Prussia established her position as the equal of 
Austria in Germany, and as the first military power 
in Europe. 

The Anglo-French Phase of the Seven Years' War. — 
Before the outbreak of the Seven Years' War in 
Europe the French and English governments had 
already renewed their struggle for supremacy in 
North America. The French planned to shut the 

English settlers out from 
the Mississippi valley and 
the lands to the west by 
building a chain of forts 
from the lower Mississippi 
to Canada. In India also 
French and English trading 
interests came into conflict. 
Under the vigorous 
government of William 
Pitt, King George IL's 
prime minister, Canada and 
the West India Islands were taken from the French. 
Thereafter the supremacy of the English race in 
America was undisputed. In India the French had 
several trading stations, of which Pondicherry was 
the biggest. The English East India Company had 
established its trading stations at Madras, near 
Pondicherry, at Bombay, and at Calcutta. The 
French were about to make further conquests under 
the able guidance of governor Diipleix, when their 
home government ruined the enterprise by misman- 




WiLLiAM Pitt. 



THE RISE OF PRUSSIA 



317 



agement. The East India Company found a leader 

of genius in Robert Clive. He imitated and improved 

the methods of Dupleix, and won for his employers 

the practical monopoly of 

the Indian trade. For the 

world's history since then 

the English gains in 

America and India have 

proved far more significant 

than the terrible seven 

years' struggle in Europe. 

Robert Clive first distin- 
guished himself by capturing 
Arcot, the capital of the 
Carnatic. The native ruler 
of this state was allied with 
the French, and Clive's suc- 
cess, followed by other vic- 
tories caused the downfall of 
Dupleix. 

In 1756 Siraj-ud-Daula, the nawab of Bengal, deter- 
mined to drive the English out of his dominions. Having 
been defeated by a small force of English under Clive, 
he allied himself with the French, and prepared for a 
decisive battle. Clive marched inland from Calcutta with a 
force of three thousand, of whom one third were Europeans. 
The nawab had fifty thousand men, and five times as many 
cannon as the English. But Siraj-ud-Daula was a timid 
despot, while Clive was, as Pitt called him, ' a heaven-born 
general.' The nawab's army was dispersed in the famous 
battle of Plassey. By placing a nawab of his own choice 
upon the throne, Clive made the East India Company actual 
rulers of Bengal (1757). 




CHAPTER XXVII 

THE RISE OF MODERN RUSSIA 

The Conquest of Siberia. — In 1613 the new dynasty 
of the Romanoffs ascended the Russian throne. The 
early rulers of this dynasty did little worthy of note. 
They were not strong enough to assert themselves 
against their Western neighbors, Turkey, Poland, and 
Sweden. In the East, however, no vigorous state 
intervened to stop the expansion of Russian authority 
across Asia. Small bands of Cossack explorers 
and adventurers conquered all of Asia north of the 
Chinese empire and up to Bering Strait. In 1643 
an exploring expedition descended the Amur river 
to the sea of Ochotsk. The important trading town 
of Irkutsk near lake Baikal became Russian in 
1652. The Russians were twice repulsed from the 
Amur by the energetic Manchu government of China. 
In 1689 the two empires made the treaty of Nerchinsk, 
which left the whole Amur region in Chinese hands. 
For nearly two hundred years this treaty stopped 
any further expansion of Russia in the Far East. 

Peter the Great (1689- 1725). — Russia at this time 
was a purely Asiatic power. Though the physical 
boundary of Europe is placed along the Ural 



THE RISE OF MODERN RUSSIA 



319 



mountains, political and social Europe stopped at 
the Russian frontiers. The Muscovites were Eastern 
rather than Western in dress, manners, and institutions. 
Since Ivan the Terrible, Western reforms had been 
attempted on a small .scale by several rulers The 
first one to lift Russia to a political equality v^ith 
the European powers was Peter the Great. 




Peter the Great. 



Peter assumed the government as a youth of 
seventeen. Through foreign merchants settled in 
Moscow he had acquired some Western learning and 
had developed a keen interest in ship-building. He 
grew convinced that the proper development of 
Russia required many reforms according to Western 
models, and above all a command of the sea. With 
remarkable energy and persistency Peter followed 
this double aim throutrhout his reig^n. 



320 MODERN HISTORY 

Peter's Self-Education. — In 1696 Peter took the 
fortified harbor of Azof at the head of the Black 
Sea from the Turks. The experience of the two 
expeditions needed for this conquest convinced him 
that his people had first of alt to learn how to build 
and sail ships. He determined to begin the national 
education with himself. He travelled to Holland 
and worked there in disguise as a ship's carpenter. 
In the docks of the East India Company at 
Amsterdam he assisted in the building of a frigate, 
doing his share of work like any ordinary laborer. 
Meanwhile he also inspected factories, schools, and 
hospitals, attended lectures on medicine ; in short, 
absorbed everything that seemed to him worthy of 
imitation in his own realm. He continued his studies 
in England, and planned to travel to Italy, but was 
recalled by a revolt of the imperial guards. Before 
returning home he engaged foreign artisans, artists, 
and military officers. 

Western Reforms. — Peter's first measure in Moscow 
was the strict punishment of the rebellious guards 
or Strelitzes. They were broken up and replaced by 
an army after the European pattern. 

The Russians all wore long beards. To cut the 
beard was considered a sacrileoe, almost like muti- 
latino- the bodv. The national costume was a lono-, 
loose robe, with long sleeves coming down over the 
hands. Peter argued that a man with a trailing gown 
and sleeved hands could not be an efficient worker. 
The beard he regarded as the symbol of conservatism. 
By imperial decree the Russians were now com- 
manded to shave and to cut off their long skirts and 



THE RISE OF MODERN RUSSIA 321 

sleeves. Barbers and tailors were stationed at the 
gates of Moscow, ready to * civilize ' all passers-by 
who had not already obeyed the imperial order. 
Peter himself trimmed off the beards and sleeves of 
some nobles who obstinately clung to the old fashion. 

Only a few more of Peter's reforms can here be 
mentioned. He stopped, so far as possible, the 
oriental seclusion of the women. He built roads 
and canals, opened mines, struck a new coinage, and 
started a postal service. While retaining and even 
strengthening autocracy in the central government, 
he established a certain measure of self-oovernment 
by the people in their local affairs. 

War with Sweden. — At Peter's accession, Sweden 
was the leading power in Northern Europe. She 
controlled the Baltic, and shut Russia off from naval 
communication with the West. Only from Archangel 
on the White Sea a diminutive trade could be carried 
on during the summer months around the North 
Cape. 

In 1697 Charles XII. came to the Swedish throne. 
As he was young and inexperienced, the states 
adjoining the Baltic took the opportunity to put 
an end to the Swedish supremacy over that sea. 
Peter the Great joined in an alliance with the kings 
of Poland and Denmark against Charles XH. 

Campaigns of Charles XII. — The young Swedish 
king had a genius for warfare which quickly broke 
up the plans of the allies. He defeated the Danes, 
marched northward against Russia, and routed the 
superior forces of Peter at Narva (1700). Peter 
comforted his officers by remarking : " The Swedes 

G,H. X 



322 MODERN HISTORY 

will have the advantage of us for some time, but 
they will teach us at last how to beat them." Charles 
led his small army into Poland, defeated the king, 
and placed one of his allies on the Polish throne. 
All Europe watched his victories with astonishment 
and admiration. 

Foundation of St. Petersburg ; Defeat of Charles XII. — 
Meanwhile Peter occupied the Swedish territory on 
the Gulf of Finland. In the marshes at the mouth 
of the river Neva he built his new capital of 
St. Petersburg, his * window to the West.' The 
difficulties of laying out the city were almost insur- 
mountable, but Peter succeeded by extraordinary 
measures. The whole land had first to be filled up, 
and the buildings had to be raised on wooden piles 
driven into the swamp. 

In 1708 Charles XII. led his army into Russia. 
Believing himself to be invincible, he rashly marched 
into the interior, far away from his base. Peter, 
who had improved his army since the defeat at 
Narva, scattered the Swedish forces at Pitltowa 
(1709). Sweden never recovered from the blow. 
The adventurous Swedish king spent some years in 
Turkey, where he brought about a campaign against 
Peter, which resulted in the temporary loss of Azof. 
After his death during a war with Norway, his reck- 
lessness had left nothing but losses for his country. 
By the peace of Nystadt (1721) Russia gained the 
eastern shore of the Baltic. From now on maritime 
trade and free communication with Western Europe 
were secured for Russia. She was now a European 
as well as an Asiatic power. 



THE RISE OF MODERN RUSSIA 323 

Cruelty of Peter the Great, — Peter had an iron will and a 
terrible temper. With his own hand he executed some of 
the revolted Strelitzes. The obstinate members of the con- 
servative party he treated with merciless severity. Torture 
and wholesale deportation to Siberia impressed his will on 
all who obstructed his reforms. When his own son Alexis 
joined the opposition, he had him tortured to death. In a 
letter sent to Alexis before his trial the emperor had written: 
" Since I do not spare my own life for the good of my 
country and the prosperity of my people, why should I 
spare yours ? " 

Though Peter's cruelty was a fault in his character, its 
ultimate effect was wholesome for Russia. It was only by 
sheer force that the unwilling Russians could be dragged 
towards a higher and freer civilization. 

Catherine II. ( 1 763- 1 796). — Most of Peter's successors 
continued his policy. The ablest ruler after him was 
Catherine II., vi^ho v^^as for Russia what Queen 
Elizabeth was for England. An English historian 
places her even above Elizabeth, calling her ' the 
greatest woman, probably, who ever sat on a throne.' 
While carrying on internal reforms along the lines 
laid down by Peter the Great, she vastly increased 
her territories by successful wars and diplomacy. 
After the death of Frederick the Great she alone 
dominated international politics in Europe. 

Territorial Expansion ; Partition of Poland. — Cathe- 
rine II., urged by her favorite minister Potemkin, 
waged successful wars of conquest against Turkey. 
She acquired most of the northern coast of the Black 
Sea, and pushed the Russian frontiers far into the 
Caucasus. 

The kingdom of Poland suffered from constant 
disorder arising out of the arrogance of the feudal 



THE RISE OF MODERN RUSSIA 325 

nobility. The Polish king could not assert his 
authority, and the nobles could not agree on united 
action. The consequent weakness of the country was 
so tempting to the neighboring states, that they finally 
agreed to divide it up among themselves. The first 
partition grew out of a secret treaty agreed on be- 
tween Catherine II., Frederick the Great, and Maria 
Theresa. 

The Polish patriots under the lead of the heroic 
Kosciusko made desperate attempts to recover their 
land and their liberty. Their uprisings were crushed, 
and Poland was blotted from the map by the second 
and third partitions. Since then the Poles have made 
many unsuccessful attempts to regain their nationality 
from their Russian, Prussian, and Austrian masters. 



CHAPTER XXVIII 

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN HISTORY FROM THE 

RESTORATION TO THE FOUNDATION OF 

THE UNITED STATES 

INTRODUCTORY SUMMARY OF EARLY AMERICAN HISTORY 

The First White Settlements. — On May 13, 1907, 
President Roosevelt welcomed guests from most states 
of the globe at the opening of the Jamestown tri- 
centennial exhibition. Just three hundred years earlier 
the first permanent English settlement was founded 
on the same spot (1607). By 1624 the colony of 
Virginia numbered 2000 inhabitants. 

In 1620 a small band of devout Puritans, usually 
called the ' PilgiHms,' who had left England to escape 
religious persecution, founded Plymouth, the first 
settlement in New England. 

A larger influx of Puritans began in 1629 under the 
religious tyranny of Archbishop Laud in England. 
Boston was founded in 1630. The spirit of the 
colonists is illustrated by the foundation in 1636 of 
Harvard College, the first collegiate institution in 
America. 

The Dtttch established trading posts along the coast 
between Virginia and New England. They derived 



ENGLISH AND AMERICAN HISTORY 327 

their claim to American territory from the discoveries 
of Henry Hudson, an English navigator in Dutch 
employ, who was the first to sail up the river named 
after him. A Dutch merchant bought Manhattan 
Island, on which New York City now stands, from 
the Indians for the nominal price of twenty-four 
dollars. The settlement there founded was called 
N'ew Amstei'dam. A sharp rivalry between the 
Dutch and the English set in at once. 

The French first settled in Nova Scotia, and in 
1608 at Qtcebec, on the St. Lawrence River. The 
rivalry between France and England was settled for 
a while by the treaty of St. Germain, in 1632, which 
left Canada and Nova Scotia in French possession. 

Principal Events until the Revolution of 1688. — Under 
charters granted by the English king several other 
colonies were started along the Atlantic seaboard. 

To the north of Viroinia the EnoHsh Lord Balti- 
more established the colony of Maryland, with the 
capital Baltimore. 

Pennsylvania was named after its founder, William 
Penn, a prominent Quaker. The Quakers were a 
devout sect of Christians, who led very simple lives, 
and considered war to be wrong. Their refusal to 
serve as soldiers often brouoht them into conflict with 
the authorities. Pennsylvania became for them a 
place of refuge from persecution. The name of its 
chief city, Philadelphia, signified the * city of brotherly 
love.' Pennsylvania was first settled in 1682. 

Nearly twenty years earlier the Dutch government 
had been forced to give up New Amsterdam to the 
English. Charles II. granted the country to his 



328 



MODERN HISTORY 



brother, James, Duke of York. The settlements in 
the Hudson valley were henceforth called New York. 
Most of the Dutch settlers remained. 

As will be told below, the last English Stuarts 
attempted to recover the arbitrary power wielded so 

disastrously by 
James I. and 
Charles I. The 
Eno'lish colonies 
felt the weight 
of the royal dis- 
pleasure far more 
than the liberals 
in the mother 
country. The 
of self- 
en- 
joyed until then 
by the colonists 
were revoked, 
and a royal 
governor ruled 
according to the 
king's pleasure. 
The 'Stuart Tyranny in New England' was ended the 
moment news of the revolution at home reached Boston. 
William and Mary were joyously proclaimed as sove- 
reigns, and the old privileges were again asserted. 




rights 



p-overnment 

o 



William Penn. 



Reign of Charles II. — Charles II. inclined to the 
despotism which was the heritage of all Stuarts. But 
he was careful not to go to extremes, remembering 



ENGLISH AND AMERICAN HISTORY 329 

the fate of his father. While officially adhering to 
the Church of England, the king was at heart a 
Catholic, and would have liked to favor Catholics in 
the orovernment. 

A suspicion that Charles planned to overthrow 
the established Church bred sfreat excitement in 
Parliament. A law passed in 1673 shut out from 
office all men not conformino^ to the State religion. 
The struggle between king and Parliament led to 
the formation of two political parties, the ' Whigs' 
and the ' Tories' The Tories were conservative 
supporters of the king. The Whigs constituted 
what in modern politics is called the progressive or 
liberal party. They stood for constitutional liberty, 
and favored the people rather than the king. 

Towards the close of the reiijn the Whig^s went 
too far in their attacks on the royal prerogative. 
Popular sympathy sided with the king, and the 
Tories secured a majority in Parliament. The result 
was that Charles II. succeeded in re-establishine an 
absolutism resembling that of the earlier Stuarts. 

The Revolution of 1688. — When Charles II.'s brother 
came to the throne as James II., he ruled from the 
start as an absolute monarch. By the ' Declaration of 
hidulgence ' he tried to annul the law against Non- 
conformists, and actually appointed Roman Catholics 
to important offices. The whole nation, excepting 
the Catholics, was indio-nant at the kinsr's disregard 
of the law of the land. When a son was born 
to James, and the people feared lest his Catholic 
rule might be continued, they decided to be rid of 
him altogether. William of Orange, the Dutch 



330 MODERN HISTORY 

Stadtholder, who had James' daughter Mary as wife, 
was secredy invited to take the throne. 

In 1688 WilHam of Orange landed in England. 
James II. found himself deserted and fled to France. 
A newly called Parliament declared that it was 'incon- 
sistent with the safety and welfare of this Protestant 
kingdom to be governed by a Popish prince.' Wil- 
liam and Mary were hailed as joint sovereigns. 

The Bill of Rights (1689). — William owed his throne 
to the will of the people, expressed through Parlia- 
ment. In the first year of his reign he assented to 
the Bill of Rights, a declaration of the ' true, ancient, 
and indubitable rights of the people of this realm.' 
This bill was a continuation and complement of the 
Magna Charta (12 15) and the Petition of Right 
(1628), It guaranteed freedom of speech and debate 
in Parliament, and forbade the keeping of an army 
in time of peace, save by consent of Parliament. 
From now on the dependence of the English kings 
on Parliament was assured. 

Enmity between England and France. — The Stuart 
kinos all had been orood friends of the French 
monarchs. With William of Orange, the most 
determined foe of Louis XIV. ascended the English 
throne. The Dutch had been the greatest sufferers 
from the aofsressions of the 'Grand Monarch,' and 
William at once ranged his new realm against the 
arch-enemy of his fatherland. In the great European 
wars of the century that followed England almost 
invariably fought against France. 

Queen Anne. — William and Mary left no heirs for 
the throne. The son and the grandson of James II., 



ENGLISH AND AMERICAN HISTORY 



331 



known as the 'Pretenders,' both attempted to become 
kinofs of E no-land, but were shut out from the sue- 
cession, because they were Catholics. Princess Anne 
of the Stuart family, being of the Protestant faith, 
was quietly recognized as queen in 1702. Her reign 
was the glorious period of Marlborough, who carried 
the fame of the English arms over Europe in the War 
of the Spanish Succession. In 
home politics there was con- 
stant rivalry between the Whigs 
and the Tories. A new feat- 
ure of political life was the 
employment of able authors 
for party controversy. Most 
of the writings of that period 
had a political bearing. 

Accession of the Hanoverian 
Dynasty. — After queen Anne's 
death, in 17 14, the nearest Pro- 
testant heir to the English throne was the elector of 
Hanover, George I. Until 1837 the English kings 
remained also rulers of Hanover. George I. (1714- 
1727) never learned to speak English, and preserved 
throughout his life his native German manners and 
customs. Naturally he was not popular with his Eng- 
lish subjects. As he could not understand the public 
affairs of his new realm, the government fell wholly 
into the hands of ministers responsible to Parliament. 
George II. (1727- 1760) spoke English, but did not 
try to assert himself so as to weaken the ministerial 
rule. From 1721 until 1742 the administration was 
guided by Sir Robert Walpole. He was a clever 




Sir Robert Walpoi.e. 



332 



MODERN HISTORY 



politician and an able financier. Under his ministry- 
England enjoyed twenty years of peace and material 
prosperity. But he set a bad example to his sub- 
ordinates by his cynical immorality. Systematic cor- 
ruption and bribery were his methods for assuring 
his majority in Parliament. 

George III. (1760- 1820). — The third of the 'Four 
Georges' was English by birth and education. 

Unlike his father and his 
grandfather, he took the 
leading part in the govern- 
ment. His mother had 
said to him, ' George, be 
a king,' and a king in the 
old Stuart or Tudor sense 
he aimed to be. He tried 
to exalt his own position 
by diminishing the power 
of Parliament. He re- 
vived the system of bribery 
of Robert Walpole, which 
William Pitt had wisely 
discouraged. By bestowing on his supporters titles, 
pensions, and offices, the king kept up a strong 
royalist party in Parliament. Unfortunately for Eng- 
land Georo-e HI. was narrow-minded and obstinate. 
He caused the defeat of the British arms and the 
loss of the American colonies. 

No Taxation without Representation. — King George 
HI. and his supporters in Parliament wished to pay 
the soldiers employed for the defence of the colonies 
by taxing colonial trade. The colonists were violently 




George HI. 



ENGLISH AND AMERICAN HISTORY 



333 



opposed to any tax voted by the English Parliament, 
because they had no representatives in that body. 
They maintained that taxation without representation 
was unconstitutional. With this principle of law all 
Englishmen agreed. But the advocates of the tax 
argued that colonial interests were represented in 
Parliament throuoh certain Enolish members, even 
though the colonies sent no members to represent 
them directly. 

For a while the home government respected the 
feelings of the colonies. But 
George III. and his ministers 
provoked war by enforcing a 
tax on tea. 

The American Revolution. — 
The thirteen colonies were no 
match against the veteran army 
and the overwhelming navy of 
the English government. Two 
circumstances combined, how- 
ever, to give final victory and 
independence to the colonies, 
success was due to the energy and devotion of 
General George Washington. Secondly, the assist- 
ance given by the French government, which finally 
declared war on England, diverted the British navy, 
and brought about the decisive defeat of the Ena;lish 
at Yorktown, 1 7 8 1 . 

Declaration of Independence. — The colonies all sent 
deleofates to a congress which first met at Phila- 
delphia in 1774. On July 4, 1776, the Congress 
adopted the Declaration of Independence, by which all 




Washington. 



First and foremost 



334 MODERN HISTORY 

governmental connection with England was formally- 
renounced. July 4 has since then been celebrated as 
the birthday of the American nation. 

The declaration of Independence briefly summed up the 
political beliefs held by most of the Americans, and justified 
the revolt against British authority by enumerating the 
abuses of the government. The political doctrines set forth 
in the Declaration were not confined to America. They 
were, on the contrary, of English and French origin, being 
mainly based on the political writings of the English philo- 
sopher, John Locke. These doctrines were the forerunners 
of revolution in France as well as in America. A quotation 
from the Declaration of Independence will therefore help to 
explain why absolutism was overthrown on two continents. 
After a brief preamble the document continues : " We hold 
these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created 
equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain 
unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and 
the pursuit of Happiness. That to secure these rights, 
Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just 
powers from the consent of the governed. That whenever 
any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, 
it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to 
institute new Government. . . . But when a long train of 
abuses and usurpations . . . evinces a design to reduce 
them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their 
duty, to throw off such government, and to provide new 
Guards for their future security." 

The First Great Americans. — The young American republic 
was fortunate in having among its founders a number of 
eminent men. Two of them are indeed counted among the 
great men of all ages. They are George Washington and 
Benjamin Franklin. Washington, now revered by all 
Americans as the ' Father of his Country,' was a wealthy 
planter in Virginia. He had gained some military experi- 
ence during the English and French war, and was chosen as 



ENGLISH AND AMERICAN HISTORY 335 

commander-in-chief of the American forces. In the face 
of a superior enemy, with undiscipHned soldiers, and with 
half-hearted support from the Congress at Philadelphia, 
Washington gained victories where only ruin seemed 
possible. His true greatness lay less in his skill as a 
general, than in the steadfastness and nobility of his 




character. After the revolution his grateful fellow-country- 
men honored him by electing him unanimously as the first 
President of the Union. 

Franklin was born in Boston as the fifteenth child of a 
tallow chandler. His father could not afford to keep him 
at school, and apprenticed him to an elder brother, a printer. 
Having quarrelled with his brother, who was an unjust 
master, Franklin made his way to Philadelphia. When he 



336 MODERN HISTORY 

landed there he was penniless. By untiring industry as a 
printer and newspaper writer he made himself a wealthy 
man. Meanwhile he had also risen to be the most 
influential citizen of Philadelphia. His eye was always on 
the public welfare. He started the first public library, 
organized the militia and the fire brigade, introduced pave- 
ments and street lamps. His early international renown 
rested on his scientific work. He first proved that lightning 
is an electric discharge, by flying a kite just before a 
thunderstorm, and so leading an electric current from the 
upper atmosphere to the ground. During the revolution he 
was American minister in Paris. The respect and admira- 
tion which the French felt for Franklin made it easy for him 
to win France as an ally against Britain. When past 
eighty years old, he was one of the most active members of 
the convention which drew up the Constitution of the United 
States. Few lives are so well fitted as his to be studied 
by young men who wish to advance themselves by honest 
industry and by true service to their fellow-men. 

The Treaty of Paris (1783). — The American Revolu- 
tion was ended by the treaty of Paris. Great Britain 
acknov^Iedged American independence, and agreed to 
other favorable terms. The boundaries of the new 
nation were fixed along the St. Lawrence River and 
the Great Lakes in the north, and along the Mis- 
sissippi in the west. Spain kept the country of 
Florida to the south, from the Atlantic to the mouth 
of the Mississippi. 

Adoption of the American Constitution. — The Con- 
federation under which the war with England had 
been carried on proved unequal to the task of 
governing thirteen independent states. Jealousies 
and quarrels arose among the states, and it looked 
as though they could not enjoy the fruits of their 



ENGLISH AND AMERICAN HISTORY 



337 



newly won liberty. Disunion would have placed the 
Americans at the mercy of their first European enemy^ 




The free growth of the young nation was assured 
by the adoption of a federal constitution in 1788. 
Broadly speaking, the single states gave up to the 
central government all powers needed for the common 



G.H. 



338 MODERN HISTORY 

welfare, retaining full rio^hts of self-sfovernment in all 
local affairs. The constitution provided for a legisla- 
ture of two houses, the House of Representatives 
and the Senate. Executive power was vested in a 
President, to be chosen anew every four years, A 
Supreme Court received jurisdiction over all cases 
which could not be settled in the state courts. The 
Constitution afforded a sound basis for the Union, 
henceforth styled the ' United States of America.' 
A new capital was presently laid out by the first 
President, Washington, whose name the city still 
commemorates. 



SECTION II 

FROM THE FRENCH REVOLUTION UNTIL 
RECENT TIMES 



CHAPTER XXIX 

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 

Introductory. — The French Revolution has a place in politi- 
cal history similar to that which the Reformation holds in 
religious history. As the latter was a revolt against the 
spiritual oppression of the Church, so the former was a terrible 
uprising against the abuses of a tyrannical monarchy. The 
French Revolution overthrew the governments based on the 
' Divine Right of Kings,' and blazed the way for the rise of 
popular constitutional governments, depending wholly or in 
part on the * consent of the governed.' The ideas of popular 
rights, to which the old French monarchy was sacrificed, 
have been accepted nearly all over Europe, have recently 
been adopted in Japan, and have proved their invasion of 
China by the wide-spread demand for a parliamentary 
government in that most conservative empire. 

Causes of the French Revolution. — Several causes of 
the revolution have already been indicated in earlier 
parts of this book. They will here be summed up 
in connection v^ith other important causes. 

(i) The kings had destroyed the ancient privileges 



340 MODERN HISTORY 

of the people, and had centred all authority in their 
own persons. Louis XV. was useless and vicious, 
while his successor, Louis XVL, was equally useless^ 
though amiable and well intentioned. 

(2) The high nobility and the upper clergy lived 
in luxury and idleness at the expense of the people. 
The feudal nobles no longer bore their former burden 
of military service, but retained their mediaeval pri- 
vileges. They paid almost no taxes, and embittered 
the peasants by many vexatious impositions. Most 
hateful were the hunting laws, which forbade the 
farmers to touch any wild animal, while the lords 
rode over the crops in pursuit of game. 

(3) The lower and middle classes had made great ad- 
vances in wealth and intelligence. The French peasants were 
better off than those of the other continental countries, where 
the mediaeval serfdom was as yet hardly modified. Yet 
their lot was very hard, compared with what the poorest 
farmer demands as his rights nowadays. The immense 
burden of taxation fell chiefly on the peasantry. The 
pleasures and privileges of the nobles were insults and 
burdens to the peasants. And the French peasants during 
the eighteenth century were no longer so dull that they 
could not understand the injustice of their position. The 
more they longed for reform the more passionate did their 
hatred of the nobility grow. 

The middle classes, called in France the ' bourgeoisie,* 
were chiefly manufacturers and traders. The bulk of the 
working officials was also drawn from their ranks, so that 
they fully understood the rottenness of the administration. 
The enormous public debt fell heavily on the middle class 
capitalists, the chief subscribers to government loans. They 
foresaw that the State would be unable to repay them 
the vast sums borrowed from them, and they justly held 
the government responsible for its financial management. 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 341 

(4) The eighteenth century was an age of free inquiry and 
bold criticism. All branches of learning and all institutions 
were regarded in the new light of Reason. The learned 
world inclined to disregard all beliefs and traditions which 
were not in harmony with reason. In the field of religion 
and politics this intellectual movement produced a revolu- 
tionary literature, which set up new theories of the rights 
of man and the duties of government. While rulers still 
clung to the ' Divine Right of Kings,' their subjects were 
taught that government rested on the consent of the 
governed, and that an oppressed people had the right to 
revolt against their oppressors. Voltaire, a philosopher of 
great learning and genius, was also a brilliant and witty 
writer. He did more than any one man before his time 
to undermine the old beliefs and traditions. The books 
of J. J. Rousseaii were discussed in the high society of 
Paris as well as in the village gathering of peasants. They 
taught that all men were equal, and that artificial class 
distinctions were evil. Men, according to Rousseau, should 
return to a state of nature, where none are rich and none 
are poor, and where no one has the power to oppress 
his fellow men. 

(5) The example of the American Revolution en- 
couraged men to hope that a similar event w^ould 
bring free institutions to the French people. 

(6) Famines v^ere of common occurrence in single 
districts, and drove the already discontented people to 
open riots. During the political crisis of 1788 and 
1789 famine was wide-spread. Starvation maddened 
the great mob of Paris, and its fury gave to the 
Revolution that ghastly aspect which makes all 
other popular upheavals in modern Europe look 
tame beside it. 

Meetingf of the States-General (1789). — King Louis 
XVI. tried his best to better the condition of his 



342 MODERN HISTORY 

people and to reduce the public debt. One of his 
ministers, Turgot, proposed wise reforms, but failed 
because the seltish upper classes refused to bear their 
just part of the public burdens. As a last resource 
the king called a meeting of the States-General. 
This was a council representing three classes, the 
nobility, the clergy, and the commons. The last- 
named class, called the Third Estate, had not been 
summoned since the year 1614. According to an 
old rule each estate voted as a united body. The 
nobles and the clergy by their two voices could 
prevent the middle class with its one vote from 
making any reform. After some violent debates the 
third estate simply proceeded to do business without 
the two others. By a revolutionary measure they 
declared themselves to be the proper representatives 
of the nation under the new name of National 
Assembly. Many members of the nobility and the 
clergy ultimately joined this new law-making body. 

Fall of the Bastille (July 14, 1789).— The Bastille 
was a fortress in Paris, which was used as a prison 
for political offenders. Hundreds of innocent men 
had been shut up in its dark cells, merely because 
some person with influence at court had wished to 
put them out of the way. The people rightly looked 
upon the Bastille as an embodiment of tyranny. 

A frenzied mob seized the arms in a public armory 
and attacked the Bastille. Its garrison was murdered, 
the prisoners were set free, and the fortress was razed 
to the ground amidst the delirious rejoicings of the 
populace. Liberal men throughout Europe welcomed 
the event as the beg^inningf of a freer ap-e. The 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 343 

people had triumphantly asserted their rights ; des- 
potism had been dealt a mortal blow. 

For the future course of the Revolution the first victory 
of the mob had terrible consequences. The lower classes 
now felt conscious of their power, and were soon impelled 
to further acts of violence. 

The King is brought to Paris. — Within three months 
after the fall of the Bastille the Paris populace 
demanded that the king should come to the capital. 

There were rumors that he was plotting to use the 
army against the revolutionists. Impelled by hatred and 
hunger, and by that aimless excitement which always makes 
an ignorant mob dangerous, an immense host marched from 
Paris to Versailles. Marie Antoinette, the queen, had by 
her pride enflamed the anger of the lower classes. A dirty 
crowd stormed the palace at Versailles, intending to kill 
the royal family. Lafayette, the leader of the National 
Guard, barely saved their lives. 

The mob brought the king and his whole family 
triumphantly to Paris. 

The National Assembly presently was also obliged 
to meet in Paris instead of Versailles. Henceforth 
the mob exerted a steadily increasing pressure on 
the deliberations. Fear of mob violence sealed the 
lips of moderate members, while the extreme radicals 
were encouraged by the applause of the masses. 

Work of the National Assembly. — The National Assembly 
broke completely with the past, and set up new institu- 
tions based on the teachings of Rousseau and other 
theorists. 

On August 4, 1789, all titles and privileges of 
nobility were abolished. The whole social order of 
France was thus upset by a single resolution. The 



344 MODERN HISTORY 

Assembly worked out a nezv constitution, making the 
government a limited monarchy, in which most of 
the power rested in a Legislative Assembly of one 
chamber. The old provinces were abolished, and the 
country was newly divided into departments named 
after the rivers and mountains. 

Emigration of the Nobles and Attempted Flight of 
the King.— Meanwhile the peasants had risen in many 
provinces, had killed the nobles, and burned their 
castles. Thousands of nobles fled over the borders 
and sought help against their democratic countrymen 
at the foreign courts. The three great Eastern 
powers, Austria, Russia, and Prussia, were too much 
preoccupied with the division of Poland to pay 
earnest attention to French affairs. But the absolute 
rulers of Europe all felt alarmed at the uprising of 
democracy in France, because they feared lest their 
own subjects might be fired to revolution by the 
French example. 

In no case could war be declared against the 
revolutionists so long as the king was virtually a 
prisoner in the hands of the excitable Paris mob. 
Plots to effect the escape of the royal family were 
constantly planned, and finally the flight beyond the 
Rhine was actually undertaken. By promptness the 
king and queen could easily have reached their 
friends, who expected them with a cavalry escort. 
Invaluable hours were wasted, however, and the 
royal family were arrested in a village half way from 
the borders. 

Hereafter the king was closely guarded. Many people 
declared that his attempted flight was equivalent to an 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 345 

abdication of the throne, while a large party also regarded 
him as a traitor against his own country. The king him- 
self was completely intimidated, and soon after took the 
oath to adhere to the new constitution, which stripped him 
of nearly all prerogatives. 

The Declaration of Pillnitz, and the Battle of Valmy. 
— In August, 1 79 1, the Prussian King, Frederick 
William II., together with the Austrian Emperor, 
issued a declaration from Pillnitz, in which they 
threatened to take steps against the French revolu- 
tionists. The latter were incensed by the foreign 
interference in the internal affairs of France, and 
forced Louis to declare war. In the ensuing cam- 
paigns the raw French recruits were at first beaten. 
But their enthusiasm for the cause of liberty soon 
checked the progress of the allied Prussian and 
Austrian armies. The former were stopped by a 
severe cannonade at P^a/mj/ (September, 1792). The 
commanding Prussian general, who had at first 
despised the French armies, ordered an ignominious 
retreat. Such was the beo-rnnino- of those wars 
between Europe and revolutionary France, by which 
ultimately a French military usurper, Napoleon, was 
to become dictator of Europe. 

Influence of Foreign Intervention on the Progress of 
the Revolution. — The Legislative Assembly provided 
by the new constitution met in October, 1791. Under 
the excitement caused by the declaration of Pillnitz 
a majority of democrats was elected. The mem- 
bers of the moderate democratic party were called 
Girondists, while the radical republicans were termed 
Mountainists, because their seats in the assembly 



346 MODERN HISTORY 

hall were high up. Danton, Robespierre, and Marat 
were the leaders of the Mountainists. 

The king still had the right to suspend laws, which 
he thought bad, by a veto. When he vetoed some 
violent decrees of the Legislative Assembly, the 
Girdonists incited an armed mob to attack the royal 
palace, and to demand that the veto should be 
abolished. 

The king and his family were shortly afterwards 
imprisoned in an ancient building known as the 
Temple. Thus the last remnant of the royal authority 
was destroyed. 

Meanwhile the French armies in the field had 
been defeated, and the Prussians were on the march 
towards Paris. Danton, at the time Minister of 
Justice, determined to terrify the royalists and the 
foreign allies by ordering the wholesale execution of 
churchmen and aristocrats confined in the Paris 
prisons. About one thousand people were killed in 
these ' September massacres.' 

Declaration of the Republic; Execution of Louis 
XVI. — The Legislative Assembly dissolved itself on 
September 21, 1792, and its place was at once taken 
by the National Convention. This body on the same 
day declared France to be a Republic. When the 
French generals followed up the victory of Valmy 
by the conquest of the Austrian Netherlands (now 
Belgium) and of some principalities along the Rhine, 
the Convention decided to extend the Revolution 
into the other European countries. They spread 
copies of a decree promising ' fraternity and assistance 
to all peoples who desire their liberty.' This promise 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 347 

was really dangerous for the neighboring governments, 
because many people were anxious to follow the 
French example, and to shake off the bonds of 
absolutism and of feudal oppression. Liberal men 
everywhere felt sympathy for the revolution. 

But the sympathy gave place to fear and disgust 
when the National Convention had the king tried 
as a traitor and executed by the guillotine^ (Jan. 
2i> 1793)- The execution was both a crime and 
a political blunder. It increased that horror of the 
revolution which its foreign friends had already begun 
to feel after the September massacres. 

Coalition against France. — In England especially 
public opinion now urged the government into war 
with France. Such a war was also necessary for 
purely political reasons, because the threatened French 
conquest of Holland was a menace to English trade 
and sea-power. Under the great prime minister 
William Pitt, the younger, England carried on war 
by sea and land, and formed one European coalition 
after another for the purpose of forcing France back 
within its original boundaries. The first coalition, 
embracing Holland, Spain, Austria, Prussia, and 
many lesser states, opened the war in 1793 by 
invading France from three sides. The French 
armies were beaten. 

The Committee of Public Safety. — The National 
Convention met the danger with incredible energy 
and enthusiasm. The Girondists, who quarrelled 
with the radical Mountamists, were arrested by order 

^ An engine for the swift and painless decapitation of criminals, named 
after Dr. Guillotin, who advocated its general use. 



348 MODERN HISTORY 

of an armed mob that invaded the Assembly hall. 
The Mountainists, now left in sole control, organized 
a secret 'Committee of Public Safety' which wielded 
absolute power over the country. The government, 




William Pitt. 

though still a republic in name, was thereby changed 
to an oligarchy. Robespierre was the head of the 
committee. 

Its ablest member was Carnof, perhaps the greatest war 
minister in history. He raised and organized immense 
armies, appointed generals, and planned campaigns. Within 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 



3-49 



a year he cleared France of its foreign enemies, and 
laid the mihtary basis for the later glorious victories of 
Napoleon. 

The Reign of Terror (June, 1793, to July, 1794). — 
The Committee's method of enforcing obedience to 
its orders was simple and terrible. Whoever showed 
signs of disloyalty or disobedience was put to death. 
Executions by the guillotine became a daily spectacle 
enjoyed by the viler portion 
of the Paris mob. In July, 
1794, the number of daily 
decapitations in Paris rose 
to 196. The Queen, Marie 
Antoinette, and twenty-one 
Girondist leaders were among 
the victims. 

A patriotic young woman, 
named Charlotte Corday, hoped 
that she might stop the Terror 
by killing one of its chief advo- 
cates. She made her way to 
the rooms of Marat, and stabbed 
him to death. But here, as 
always, assassination proved no remedy. On the contrary, 
Marat's colleagues revenged his assassination by increased 
cruelty. 

There is no space here to give a clear account of those 
stirring times. New men and new ideas, some truly great, 
others visionary or fanatic, followed one another in bewil- 
dering swiftness. It was during the Reign of Terror that 
the old calendar was abolished together with the Christian 
religion. The whole social order in all its aspects was to 
be started on a new basis. Among the sensible reforms was 
the metric system of weights and measures, which has survived 




Marie Antoinette. 



350 MODERN HISTORY 

to the present day, and promises to become the universal 
standard throughout the civiUzed world. 

Fall of Robespierre; End of the Terror. — By having 
his opponents in the Convention, notably Danton, 
brought to the guillotine, Robespierre made himself 
dictator. He declared that he wished to establish 
an ideal government based on brotherly love, liberty, 
and equality. He denounced atheism, the denial of 
God's existence, as immoral, and led the Convention 
to pass a decree establishing the worship of the 
* Supreme Being' as the national cult. All opposition 
was punished with death. In six weeks 1366 people 
were executed. At last Robespierre's own associates 
beean to fear lest his ambition mi^ht send them 
also to the guillotine. They suddenly turned against 
him, and denounced him in the Convention as a 
traitor. Next day Robespierre's head fell under the 
same knife which had for over three months been 
the symbol and instrument of his rule. By his death 
the reign of Terror was ended. The mass of the 
French citizens was tired of the constant excite- 
ment which had been kept up by the revolutionary 
agitators. They wished to return to a quiet and 
normal life. 

Formation of the Directory (1795). — The Convention 
now drew up a new constitution, by which the 
executive power was vested in a Directory of five 
members. The legislative body was to consist of 
two houses, while the three former legislatures of the 
revolution had been single houses. The franchise 
(right to vote), which in 1793 had been based on 
universal suffrage, was now restricted to citizens 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 351 

paying a certain amount of taxes. This and other 
measures angered the Paris mob. On October 5 
an armed rabble advanced to attack the assembly 
hall where the Convention sat. But a firm young 
artillery officer met the mob with grape shot. Before 
his well aimed cannon they fled in dismay. This 
officer was the first man who understood how mob 
rule could be beaten down. His name was Napoleon 
Bonaparte. 



CHAPTER XXX 

THE NAPOLEONIC ERA 

Early Life of Napoleon. — Napoleon was born in 1769 
at Ajaccio, the capital of Corsica. He was the 
second son of the patrician family of Bonaparte. 
During his boyhood, Corsica was conquered by the 
French, and the Bonapartes thus became French 
subjects. Napoleon showed unusual ability as a 
student at the military school at Brienne. In 1793, 
when the port of Toulon allied itself with the English 
against the revolutionary government, Napoleon was 
an artillery officer in the army sent to punish the 
city. By his plans, which were accepted by the 
commanding generals, the city was soon forced to 
surrender. Though only twenty-four years of age, he 
had now made a reputation. During the following 
year he served as a general of artillery, and won 
influence amono- leadincr members of the orovernment. 

Napoleon's First Italian Campaign (1796- 1797). — 
Under the Directory Napoleon was entrusted with 
the supreme command of the army sent against the 
Austrians in Italy. 

The older generals were at first distrustful and jealous 
of their young commandant. But they soon learned to 



THE NAPOLEOmC ERA 353 

admire him as a genius in the art of war. Napoleon 
always knew how to win the enthusiastic devotion of his 
soldiers. His ability to make stirring addresses was shown 
in his first proclamation : " Soldiers, you are ill fed and 
almost naked. The government owes you much, but can 
do nothing for you. Your patience and your courage do 
you honor, but procure you neither glory nor profit. I am 
about to lead you into the most fertile plains of the world : 
there you will find great cities and rich provinces ; there you 
will win honor, glory, and riches. Soldiers of the army 
of Italy, will you lack courage?" 

The ensuing campaign wds the most remarkable 
fought on Italian soil since the days of Hannibal. 
The Austrians were out-generalled and beaten at 
every point. In the spring of 1797 Bonaparte 
marched close to Vienna, the Austrian capital, and 
forced the emperor to make peace. By the treaty 
of Cainpo Formio the Austrian Netherlands were 
ceded to France, and the Rhine was accepted as the 
eastern boundary of the republic. Northern Italy was 
converted into two new states, modelled after the 
French pattern, called the Cisalpine and the Ligurian 
Republics. 

The Egyptian Expedition (1798- 1799). — After the 
humiliation of Austria, England remained the one 
great enemy of the French Republic. Napoleon con- 
ceived the adventurous scheme of attacking England 
in India, the source of so much English wealth and 
power. Since the English fleet controlled the ocean, 
the expedition had to go overland. Egypt was to 
be the base for a further advance to the East. The 
Directors gladly assented to Napoleon's plans, because 
they feared him as a political rival at home. 

G.H. Z 



354 MODERN HISTORY 

Together with his picked army, Napoleon took a 
number of scholars, who were to study the ancient 
monuments of the East. The fleet luckily escaped 
the British squadron cruising in the Mediterranean, 
and landed safely in Egypt. Lower Egypt was con- 
quered with slight losses to the French. But the 
successes of Napoleon came to naught through the 
British superiority at sea. Admiral Nelson attacked 
the French fleet, which was anchored in Abukir 
bay, and destroyed it completely. This celebrated 
naval battle of the Nile cut off the communications 
between Egypt and France. Later on, after Napoleon 
had returned to France, the army was entirely 
destroyed. 

Napoleon becomes First Consul. — During Napoleon's 
absence the Directory got into difficulties. England 
formed the Second Coalition of European states 
aeainst France. The French orenerals were beaten, 
Italy was lost, and the republic itself was in danger 
of a foreign invasion. At home also the Directors 
had great trouble with the royalists and the extreme 
republicans. 

When Napoleon heard of these troubles, he deter- 
mined to seize the government himself. Leaving his 
army behind, he hastened back to Paris. His 
immense popularity made it easy for him to over- 
throw the Directory, and draw up the new constitution 
of the year 1 799, By this the executive power was 
vested in three consuls chosen for ten years. Napo- 
leon as First Consul had practically sole and absolute 
power, his two colleagues being merely the instru- 
ments of his will. When the people were asked to 



THE NAPOLEONIC ERA 355 

ratify the constitution, over three milHon voted for it, 
and only 1500 voted against it. 

Defeat of the Second Coalition. — As soon as internal 
affairs were settled, Napoleon prepared to retrieve 
the military losses suffered during his absence. By 
secrecy and promptness he succeeded in leading an 
•army across the Alps without the knowledge of the 
Austrian general campaigning in the western Po 
valley. The Austrians were taken by surprise. In 
the battle of Marengo they were completely defeated, 
so that Italy was regained at one blow. Austria was 
glad to make peace on the same terms as those 
given by the treaty of Campo Formio. England 
also signed a treaty of peace at Amiens (1802), by 
which she restored to France most of the conquests 
made since the be^inninsf of the war. 

Napoleon's Peace Works. — Napoleon's government 
showed that he also possessed genius as a statesman 
and administrator. Prosperity and order soon re- 
turned to France. In all his reforms Napoleon 
worked with an energy and rapidity which seemed 
almost superhuman. The most beneficial reform was 
his new code of laws, called the Code Napoleon. 

It was prepared by the most eminent French jurists, 
and represented a summary of the legal reforms introduced 
during the revolution. It was largely based on old French 
and Roman law. . Under the name of ' Code Civil ' it 
still forms the existing law of France, while several other 
countries, such as the Argentine Republic, Mexico, and 
Italy, follow the code more or less closely in their laws. 
During his confinement at St. Helena, Napoleon once said : 
*' My true glory is not that I have gained forty battles ; 
Waterloo will efface the memory of those victories. But 



356 



MODERN HISTORY 



that which nothing can efface, which will live for ever, is my 
civil code." 

Napoleon Crowns himself Emperor. — The First 
Consul aimed at making his rule permanent and 
hereditary. In 1802 he v^as made consul for life, 
and in 1804 he put the question to the French nation, 
whether it wanted him to bear the title of Emperor. 

Nearly all the citi- 
zens voted in favor 
of havinof the re- 
public converted 
into an empire. 
\apoleon assumed 
the crown amid 
ceremonies imitat- 
'^'1 ing closely the 
C( ironation of Char- 
It Qiagne. The Em- 
peror's power was 
practically that of 
a military dictator. 
His sudden rise 
could not have come 
about if the French 
people had really been 
ripe for a democratic 
government. That Napoleon had aimed at monarchy from 
the start, appears from the following remark made by him in 
1799 : "... a republic ... is a chimera with which the French 
are infatuated, but which will pass away in time like all 
the others. What they want is glory and the satisfaction 
of their vanity ; as for libert}', of that they have no concep- 
tion. . . . The nation must have a head, a head which 
is rendered illustrious by glory." 




THE NAPOLEONIC ERA 357 

Renewal of European War. — Napoleon might have 
enjoyed the fruits of his victories in peace if he could 
have checked his ambition. But he constantly inter- 
fered in the affairs of other states, and planned the 
foundation of a French colonial empire embracing 
India and parts of America. England was forced 
to renew the war in self-defence. Russia, Austria, 
and Sweden joined England in the Third Coalition' 
(1805). 

Napoleon made gigantic preparations for an 
invasion of England. TrocTps and transport vessels 
were held in readiness at Boulogne. Had the 
English relaxed their vigilance over the Channel for 
a day, they might have been lost. The danger 
vanished by the famous victory of admiral Nelson 
over the combined French and Spanish fleets off 
cape Trafalgar^ near Gibraltar (1805). 

Nelson's order : " England expects every man to do his 
duty," will never be forgotten. The heroic admiral fell 
in the thick of the fight. After Trafalgar the British were 
absolute lords of the sea. 

In the land campaign Napoleon was more brilliant 
than ever. By his rapid marches he captured 30,000 
Austrians at Ulm, on the Upper Danube. The 
French soldiers remarked that the Emperor made 
war no longer with their arms, but with their legs. 
At Austerlitz, near Vienna, the Austrians and 
Russians were completely beaten. Prussia was over- 
thrown, and the French armies marched triumphantly 
through Berlin. The Russians still continued the 
war, and fought with the utmost bitterness at Eylau 
{February, 1807). ^ ^^^ months later they also 



358 MODERN HISTORY 

suffered a decisive defeat at Friedland. Moved 
pardy by admiration for Napoleon's genius, the Czar 
Alexander I. concluded the peace of Tilsit (1807). 
The two arbiters of continental Europe met on a 




raft anchored in the middle of the Niemen river, 
between the two armies. 

The Peace of Tilsit. — At Tilsit Napoleon proposed 
that he and the Russian Czar should practically 
divide Europe between them. Prussia was deprived 



THE NAPOLEONIC ERA 359 

of nearly half her dominions. Sweden and Turkey 
were to be partly incorporated in Russia. In fact 
Finland was taken from Sweden shortly afterwards. 
The countries west of Russia which did not form 
part of Napoleon's empire were either ruled by his 
relatives or forced into alliance with him. His 
youngest brother Jerome was king of Westphalia, 
formerly western Prussia. Louis Bonaparte was king 
of Holland. Napoleon himself assumed the kingship 
over Italy, and appointed his stepson Eugene Beau- 
harnais as viceroy. Joseph Bonaparte, the oldest 
brother, received the royal crown of Naples. The 
princes of Western Germany were joined into the 
' Confederation of the Rhine,' under Napoleon's 
protectorate. 

By these changes the old German Empire was 
dissolved. Francis I. therefore abdicated the throne 
of the Holy Roman Empire, and assumed the new 
title of ' Emperor of Austria.' 

The Continental System. — Great Britain alone refused 
to bow down before the new Caesar of Europe. Since 
Napoleon could not reach her with his armies, he 
determined to cripple her trade. From Berlin he 
issued a decree forbidding all states of Europe to 
have any communication with England. British ships 
and British goods entering any continental harbor 
were confiscated. The measure caused great distress 
to the laborers, manufacturers, and shippers of England. 
But it was felt with equal severity by the European 
people. Prices of imported goods rose above the 
means of all but the rich. Trade was ruined every- 
where. Russia especially had been dependent on 



360 MODERN HISTORY 

English supplies of cloth and other manufactures, 
and the discomfort caused by the continental system 
soon made the French alliance unpopular. Meanwhile 
it was impossible for Napoleon to guard the whole 
coast of Europe, The English organized a vast 
smuggling service, and continued secretly to import 
great quantities of goods. 

The Peninsular War in Spain {1808-1812). — In 1808 
Napoleon interfered in the affairs of Spain and 
Portugal, because these countries continued to open 
their ports to British traders. Joseph Bonaparte, king 
of Naples, was now made king of Spain, and the 
crown of Naples went to Murat, the Emperor's 
brother-in-law. The Spaniards, who have always been 
a proud and patriotic people, at once rebelled against 
the French kingr. Their resistance was more danoerous 
than any yet encountered by Napoleon, because most 
of the population took up arms. When one province 
was pacified the struggle was renewed in another. 
The Portuguese and Spanish patriots got help from 
a British army under the Duke of Wellington. The 
French generals were slowly but surely forced back 
and driven across the Pyrenees. The Spanish war 
cost France a great deal of blood and treasure, and 
undermined Napoleon's prestige in Europe. The 
news of the British successes in the peninsula 
encouraged the other enemies of Napoleon, and so 
led to his final defeat. 

The Eussian Expedition (18 12). — Beside the hardships 
imposed by the continental system, the Czar had several 
reasons for repenting of his agreement with Napoleon. The 
latter would not allow the annexation of Turkey to Russia. 



THE NAPOLEONIC ERA 361 

He also insulted Alexander by asking for the hand of a 
Russian princess, and then suddenly marrying ^ the arch- 
duchess Maria Louisa of Austria, before the Czar had 
even sent a reply. 

The grrowino- bitterness of Russia led to a declaration 
of war in 18 12. Napoleon had the resources of nearly 
all Western Europe at his disposal. He equipped an 
army of nearly half a million men, one-third of whom 
was drawn from France. In June the 'Grand Army' 
crossed the Niemen river and invaded Russia. The 
Russian generals wisely avoided a pitched battle with 
the invincible strategist, and retreated eastward before 
the invaders, denuding the country of supplies on 
their march. At Borodino, not far from Moscow, they 
tried to stop Napoleon's progress. After terrible 
fighting they were beaten, but retreated in good 
order. 

Napoleon entered the ancient capital of Moscow 
as conqueror, and expected shortly to dictate the terms 
of peace to Alexander. The inhabitants of Moscow 
had all fled from their homes, and the Grand Army 
had not yet settled in the deserted city, when fires 
broke out in many places. Three days later nine- 
tenths of the city lay in ashes. Napoleon now made 
a fatal mistake. He waited in the ruined city for 
five weeks, always hoping that the Czar would ask 
for peace. Not until October 19 did he order the 

^ Napoleon's first wife, Josephine, was the daughter of the French 
general Beauharnais. She bore him no son, and he was anxious to 
make his throne hereditary. His vanity also prompted him to seek a 
marriage alHance with one of the old royal houses. He had himself 
divorced from Josephine, and married a daughter of the Austrian 
Emperor. By her he had a son, who received the title ' King of Rome.' 



362 MODERN HISTORY 

retreat. That year the winter set in much earlier 
than usual. The army was overtaken by snow and 
bitterly cold weather. The Russian soldiers, who 
were accustomed to the cold, harassed the starving 
French divisions on all sides, so that the retreat 
was turned into an endless battle. 250,000 men were 
slain, starved, or frozen, while 130,000 were taken 
prisoners. A woeful remnant of 17,000 was all of 
the Grand Army that escaped from this most awful 
campaign in European history. 

Abdication of Napoleon (18 14), — During the past six 
years the Prussian administration had been thoroughly 
reformed in all its branches. Many social improvements 
of the French revolution were introduced, and the army 
was remodelled along the lines learned from Napoleon. 
The new social freedom and the hatred of the French 
masters combined to arouse an intense German patriotism. 
The Prussian nation only waited for the first opportunity 
to drive out its oppressors. 

When the destruction of the Grand Army became 
known in Germany, the Prussian king was forced 
by his people to declare war against Napoleon. The 
latter raised another large army in France, an army 
consisting largely of half-grown youths, the manhood 
of the country already having been sacrificed in scores 
of battles all over Europe. After several bitterly 
contested engagements had been fought in Saxony, 
the Austrians also joined the allies against Napoleon. 
During three days a series of battles was fought 
around the city of Leipzig, and the French were 
surrounded and crushed by superior numbers. The 
allied armies followed Napoleon across the Rhine, 
and at the same time the British and Spanish forces 



THE NAPOLEONIC ERA 



363 



crossed the Pyrenees. Napoleon was ready to fight 
on to the very last ; but his own generals disobeyed. 
He had to abdicate, and suffer himself to be hurried 
to the* little island of Elba. There he was allowed 
to rule as a petty sovereign, surrounded by a few 
faithful adherents. 

The Hundred Days and Waterloo (181 5). — The 
Bourbon prince Louis XVIII., brother of the late king 
Louis XVI., was set 
as kinor over France 
by the allies. He was 
a, dull man, to whom 
the saying, 'The 
Bourbons learn noth- 
ino- and forg-et noth- 
ing,' was well applied. 
He and his court tried 
to set France back to 
the condition before 
the revolution. The 
people were soon dis- 
satisfied, and longed ., 
for the return of the ^ 
Napoleonic rule. 

Napoleon was informed about the state of public 
feeling in France. He escaped from Elba with a 
small following and landed on the south coast of 
France. Everywhere his old soldiers went over to 
him. The Bourbons had to flee, while the emperor 
entered Paris amid the acclamation of the multitude. 

The allies at once declared Napoleon as ' an 
enemy and disturber of the peace of the world.' 




Duke of Wellington. 



364 MODERN HISTORY 

While their forces hastened towards France, Napoleon 
with his accustomed energy and swiftness raised a 
new army. He first defeated the Prussians, and 
then attacked the English army under the Duke 
of Wellington, which held a strong position on 
the heights of Waterloo, not far from Brussels. The 
troops on both sides fought all day with incredible 
bravery. Towards evening Napoleon thought he 
had the victory. But the Prussian army of General 
Blucher appeared on his flank at the last moment. 
The imperial army was annihilated (June 18, 18 15). 

A number of circumstances combined to decide this most 
momentous battle in modern history. In the morning the 
ground was soft from rain, and Napoleon could not move 
his cannon into good positions until late in the afternoon. 
Thus a shower of rain can be said to have caused the 
downfall of the Corsican giant. Wellington and Blucher 
deserve equal glory for their share in the victory. Wel- 
lington was called the 'Iron Duke' for the inflexible 
determination with which he held his ground against the 
deadly charges of the French cavalry. Blucher performed 
a wonderful march with a beaten army, and turned the 
threatened defeat of the English into a decisive victory. 

Last Years of Napoleon (181 5-1 821). — After the 
battle of Waterloo Napoleon gave himself up as 
prisoner on board a British man of war. His further 
presence in or near Europe was thought to endanger 
the world's peace. He was therefore exiled to the little 
island of St. Helena, in the middle of the Southern 
Atlantic. During his exile he composed historical 
memoirs. 

Estimate of Napoleon. — Napoleon was the greatest military 
genius and the greatest administrator of modern times. But 



THE NAPOLEONIC ERA 365 

his almost superhuman talents and energy were mostly used 
for selfish ends. His personal ambition could find no limits 
in its aggressions on Europe, and so brought about his final 
downfall. From all the confusion and bloodshed caused by 
him there emerged in the end some lasting good. By his 
conquests ideas of social justice and liberal administration 
were spread throughout Europe. When the sovereigns 
reconstructed Europe in 1 8 1 5 they would have liked to 
re-establish despotic institutions, but found that Napoleon's 
regime had already rooted liberalism in the minds of the 
people. 

In Germany and Italy Napoleon had extinguished 
numerous small and badly governed states. He had shown 
the people of these countries the advantages of political 
unity. Thenceforward they never ceased to aspire to national 
union. In other words, Napoleon hastened the building up 
of modern Germany and Italy. 

As for France, she got from Napoleon lasting glory and 
a short-lived imperial sway. But she paid dearly for her 
conquests with the blood of her people. And Napoleon's 
fall left France with a territory smaller than that owned 
before the revolution. 



CHAPTER XXXI 

THE MATERIAL AND INTELLECTUAL PROGRESS OF 
THE WORLD SINCE THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 

Introduction. — Before continuing our study of 
modern times, we must stop to consider certain 
phases of development outside of the field of purely 
political history. 

The actions of kings and statesmen have always been 
largely determined for them by the circumstances of their 
subjects. The greater the ignorance and the poverty of 
the people was, the more absolute and oppressive could be 
the rule of the government. Men who have to struggle 
hard all their lives to get enough food and clothing, take 
no interest in public affairs. Daily hardships tire their 
bodies and enfeeble their minds. They quietly bear the 
burdens which seem to be a natural part of their existence. 

Since the close of the eighteenth century the common 
people of Europe have demanded and received an ever- 
increasing share in the management of government. The 
principle of popular rights has come into force since the 
French Revolution, that terrible protest against the exclusive 
rule of the privileged classes. We have learned above that 
the Revolution was preceded by free philosophical inquiry, 
and by a more general spread of intelligence among the 
French people. The successive revolutions and reforms of 
the nineteenth century were similarly conditioned by an 



PROGRESS OF THE WORLD 367 

advance in knowledge. The fundamental reasons for modern 
political and social changes lie in the remarkable intellectual 
and material progress which distinguishes the last hundred 
years from all other periods of history. This chapter will 
therefore deal briefly with the most notable inventions, 
discoveries, and social improvements of recent times. 

The Progress of Science. — Science is the foundation 
on which all modern inventions rest. Chemists and 
physicists prepared that body of knowledge which 
led to the invention of steam engines and of 
thousands of improved manufacturing methods. Bio- 
logists and zoologists, the students of plant and 
animal life, made most of the discoveries through 
which medical skill has been so much increased, for 
the benefit of mankind. 

The development of modern science dates from 
Sir Francis Bacon, the founder of the inductive 
method (about 1600). After his time knowledge 
expanded slowly but steadily. In the second half 
of the eighteenth century Europe already counted 
a large number of scientific men. The German 
philosopher Kant and the French mathematician 
and astronomer Laplace are the intellectual giants 
of that time. In France a group of scholars under 
the leadership of Dide7^ot published a work of twenty- 
eight volumes on the whole body of existing human 
knowledge (i 751-1772). This publication they called 
the Encyclopedia, whence the name of Encyclopedists 
is usually given to its authors. 

Napoleon encouraged scientific men, although he 
tried to prevent the spread of political intelligence 
among the people. He once said: "The true con- 



368 MODERN HISTORY 

quests, the only conquests which cost no regrets, are 
those achieved over ignorance." 

After the close of the Napoleonic era every field 
of science was cultivated with ever-increasing ardor. 
The enthusiastic labors of many devoted seekers 
for truth g-ave mankind a control over natural 
forces, such as few people had dreamed of. 
Through science man truly became the master of 
nature. 

It is difficult to pick out the most eminent names, 
where so many are great. Judged by the blessings 
given to their fellow-men, the two chemists Liebig 
and Pasteur should perhaps be placed first. The 
German Liebig (1803- 1873) may, through his nume- 
rous discoveries and inventions, be called the father 
of organic chemistry. When a Paris newspaper 
organized a popular vote to determine who was the 
greatest Frenchman of the nineteenth century, the 
first place was given to Pasteur. 

The man who has most profoundly influenced succeeding 
thought is the Englishman Charles Darwin. After many 
years of study, and after a voyage round the world, devoted 
to research in zoology, botany, and geology, Darwin pub- 
lished in 1859 his Origin of Species. In this book he 
confirmed and enlarged the old theory that existing plants 
and animals have gradually developed from lower forms, 
and probably all spring from some one primitive form. 
The process is called evolution. Darwin's theory was more 
bitterly contested than any idea ever published before. 
But now his views are accepted by nearly the whole 
scientific world. The conception of evolution has been 
found to explain the growth of all things whatsoever. It 
has brought a new era, not only for natural sciences, but 
also for history, law, philosophy, and education. 



PROGRESS OF THE WORLD 369 

The Moral Aspect of Pure Science. — The succeeding para- 
graphs will mention some of the concrete results of 
scientific work, and of their application to practical life. 
A word should first be said of the intellectual and moral 
value of pure science. The men who devote themselves 
wholly to the search for scientific truth are following the 
loftiest purpose attainable by man. Their work has already 
done more to raise mankind to a higher level than the 
conquerors or legislators or religious teachers could do in 
a thousand years. Their fame, which should outshine that 
of Mohammed or Napoleon, is still small, because the 
nature of their work cannot be understood by the majority 
of men. Their example makes it clear to an ever-increas- 
ing proportion of mankind, that truth is the highest and 
safest moral ideal. 

The Invention of Steam Engines. — In 1769 the 
Englishman James Watt invented the first steam 
engine. He found thereby a convenient way of 
usino- natural forces — heat converted into motion — 
to do work which had before been done by man 
power. The steam engine was rapidly perfected and 
combined with other machines for manufacturino- 
purposes. Most notable among these were two 
English inventions, the spinning jenny of Hargreaves 
(1767), and the power loom of Cartwright (1785). 
With primitive methods, using the hand spindle, one 
person could spin one thread at a time. With 
improved spinning machines driven by water or 
steam powder, one operator could soon control the 
spinning of twelve thousand threads. 

The Factory System. — So long as primitive hand 
labor was used, most artisans worked at home. Very 
little capital was needed for these ' domestic indus- 
tries/ where only small amounts of raw materials 



370 



MODERN HISTORY 



were bought at a time. Machines were expensive, 
and their use called for large amounts of raw 
materials. Hence wealthy men started 'factories,' in 
which they employed workmen for wages. Soon a 




James Watt. 

single employer had hundreds of workmen in his 
pay, and dependent on his management. Factories 
multiplied in places where coal and iron were close 
at hand. In districts like ' that of Lancashire in 
England, which used to be sparsely inhabited, popu- 
lous cities quickly grew up. Many thousands of 
people who had formerly lived in the open country, 



PROGRESS OF THE WORLD 371 

were suddenly crowded into the new industrial 
centres. 

The machine-made goods could be sold more 
cheaply than the goods made in the old-fashioned 
way. Hence, all those people who continued in 
their domestic manufacture had to lower the prices 
of their products, and suffered want. Especially 
among the weavers the transition period from the 
old to the factory system brought terrible suffering. 

English Industrial and Commercial Supremacy. — The 
'industrial revolution,' as it is usually called, happened 
first in England. While the wars between France 
and the other powers retarded the growth of manu- 
factures in continental Europe, England became the 
workshop of the world. English cloth and iron ware 
became indispensable to the Russian peasant, the 
American pioneer, and the Indian prince. The in- 
dustrial and commercial supremacy of England lasted 
until the second half of the nineteenth century, but is 
now closely disputed by the United States, Germany, 
and France. 

Railways. — Roadways of parallel wooden rails have 
been used since ancient times. Iron rails for running 
tramcars drawn by horses were first employed at 
some Welsh mines, to bring coal to the sea. In 
1804 Trevethick constructed the first steam loco- 
motive for use in drawing these tramcars. Ten years 
later, in 18 14, G. Stephenson built an improved 
locomotive, but still failed to impress the public with 
the value of his invention. He continued to perfect 
the engine, and in 1825 he constructed a locomotive 
which could draw a heavy train at the speed of eleven 



37 2 MODERN HISTORY 

miles an hour. Five years later his 'Rocket,' built 
for the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, attained 
a speed of thirty-five miles an hour. This success 
provoked a fever of railway construction throughout 
England. By 1840 all the principal cities of the island 
were connected by rail. 

The principal European countries and America quickly 
followed England's example. The great railways which in 
the United States and Canada have been built across the 
continent, have been more efficient as builders of empire 
than any army in the world's history. The surplus popu- 
lation of Europe has been distributed over territories which 
recently were an unbroken wilderness. Thriving cities and 
smiling farmlands have arisen with magic swiftness in the 
old haunts of wild beasts. 

Effects of Railway Construction. — With the railway 
came a new era for all nations. The transportation 
of goods became cheap, rapid, and reliable. The 
surplus of the farm, the ore of the mine, the product 
of the factory, could all be distributed easily through- 
out the country. The poor man's food was cheapened, 
and local famines became a horror of the past. Books 
and newspapers could reach every hamlet ; education 
was spread more widely and efficiently than ever 
before. The former discomforts and dangers of 
foreign travel disappeared ; men could now easily 
visit other nations, and discover that the strangers 
also have many superior qualities. Racial prejudice, 
one of the worst children of ignorance, met in the 
railway its sworn enemy. 

Steam Navigation. — In 1807 the first steamboat, 
built by the American Robert Fulton, made its trial 
trip on the Hudson River. Fulton also constructed 



PROGRESS OF THE WORLD 373 

the first steamer that crossed the Atlantic Ocean, in 
1 8 19. His voyage from Savannah to Liverpool took 
twenty-six days. The fast liners of the leading- 
English and German steamship companies now cross 
the Atlantic in five days. 

The effect of cheap and rapid ocean transport 
has nowhere been farther reaching than in the Far 
East. China and Japan were brought within a 
month's journey of Europe. The giant steamers 
that exchanged the raw products of Asia for the 
manufactures of Europe, imported also the new 
ideas from the West, which soon were to transform 
the ancient Eastern institutions from their very 
foundations. 

The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 linked India 
and the Far East still closer to Europe. The Asiatic traffic 
was again directed through its historic channels, and old 
Mediterranean ports like Genoa entered on a new period of 
prosperity. 

Electric Telegraphs and Telephones.- -The most 
wonderful of all the new inventions was the electric 
telegraph {tele = far ; graph = write). Experiments 
were made with it early in the nineteenth century, 
but its general use dates from the invention by the 
American Morse of a practical apparatus for send- 
ing and receiving messages (1844). After several 
failures, involving immense labor and pecuniary 
losses, telegraphic cables were also laid on the 
bottom of the ocean, connecting England with 
America. Now electric messages can be conveyed 
to all parts of the globe. In 1896 the Italian Marconi 
patented a system of wireless telegraphy. ' Marconi- 



374 MODERN HISTORY 

grams ' are now constantly flashed through the ether 
between Enoland and America. Vessels exchanofe 
messaofes with land stations and with one another 
while speeding through mid-ocean. 

Telephones came into general use after the American 
Bell hQ.d invented in 1877 the perfected instrument named 
after him. Wireless telephony, already adopted by the 
American navy, is the last wonder of science made sub- 
servient to the uses of warfare (1907). More rem^arkable 
even than the preceding, though of a less important 
character, is the recent invention of telephotography, by 
which photographic likenesses can be transmitted over an 
ordinary telegraph wire (1907). All these inventions 
tend to bind the nations together into one large family. 
Peking is now nearer to Paris than London was a century 
ago. 

Penny Postage and the Universal Postal Union. — Until 
the beginning of the nineteenth century it was diffi- 
cult to send letters from one part of the world to 
another. Even within the single countries postage 
was very expensive, and only larger cities had regular 
postal connections. In 1830 it still cost over a 
shilling to send a letter from London to Ireland. 
In 1837 the English parliament adopted a uniform 
postage of one penny per letter, and the English 
example was soon followed by every civilized state. 
Under the old system every Englishman sent on the 
average four letters per year. In 1900 the average 
reached 56 per head of the total population, or the 
incredible number of 2324 million letters sent in one 
year. 

On the suggestion of Germany twenty-two countries 
joined into a 'Universal Postal Union' in 1874. 



PROGRESS OF THE WORLD 375 

At the second postal congress of 1878 countries 
representing- 750 million inhabitants were membe/s 
of the Union. All the civilized world is now 
embraced by it, and forms for postal purposes a 
single country. It costs far less now to send a letter 
from Tokio to Berlin, than it cost seventy years ago 
to send it from Paris to Marseilles. Correspond- 
ence between the different countries has increased 
a hundredfold. 

The Growth of the Newspaper Press. — The first daily 
paper appeared in London in 1702. It is no accident 
that the public press began its modern growth in 
England. 1 702 is the last year of the reign of 
William and Mary, who had in 1689 signed the 
Declaration of Rights. Political liberty, which 
includes the right of free speech and of a free press, 
has always been the nurse of vigorous public opinion. 
In the Greek democracies, which had no knowledoe 
of printing, liberty went hand in hand with the 
perfection of public oratory. Under modern condi- 
tions the freedom or oppression of the press is a 
faithful reflex of the liberality or despotism of the 
government. 

In the United States, where the republican institu- 
tions have always bred a general interest in public 
affairs, 20,156 newspapers and journals were published 
in 1902. Autocratic Russia, on the other hand, 
counted in 1900 826 newspapers. Quite remarkable 
is the difference between the one and first daily paper 
published in absolutist France in 1777, and the 
thousand political papers and journals which suddenly 
sprang into existence during the revolution. 



376 MODERN HISTORY 

The press is the most powerful and influential educational 
agency. The great modern newspapers bring telegraphic 
news from all parts of the world, and explain to their readers 
all items that are difficult to understand. The newspaper 
writers claim to voice the opinions of their readers in open 
criticism of all sorts of public events. They also shape 
to a large extent the public opinion which is expressed 
by the votes of the citizens in their choice of representatives 
and elective officials. From the political point of view, in 
fact, the press may be called a larger parliament of the 
nations. 

The Hastening- of Historical Development. — Steam 
engines, railways, huge ocean liners, telegraphs, the 
postal system, and the newspaper press : these six 
are the chief makers of the modern era. In combina- 
tion they have hastened historical development to a 
speed which would have been incredible a century 
ago. Reforms and transformations which would 
formerly have taken hundreds of years, are now 
begun and completed within the lifetime of a genera- 
tion. Among the most remarkable of these recent 
swift changes are the remodelling along western lines 
of Japan, the partition and industrial exploitation of 
Africa, and the settlement of the American and 
Canadian West. All these events will be more fully 
mentioned later on. 

Progress of Education and of Humanitarian Enter- 
prises. — Modern Western civilization is sometimes 
blamed for being too exclusively devoted to material 
ends. Wealth and power are said to be its only goal. 
That such an opinion is not wholly justified will be 
seen from the progress that has been made in general 
education and morality. 



PROGRESS OF THE WORLD 377 

Popular Education. — Before the French Revolution 
more than half of the population of Europe was 
illiterate. Frederick the Great introduced compulsory 
elementary education in Prussia (1763); but some 
time passed before his wise example was widely imi- 
tated. At the present day it would be difficult to 
find in Germany a young man or woman unable to 
read and write. In most other western countries 
illiterate persons are also rare. 

The spread of education has made the lives of the people 
freer and more interesting. Superstition, which has lain 
so heavily on mankind, is giving place to enlightenment. 
Religious intolerance, that scourge of Europe, has nearly 
everywhere been banished by broader and humaner views. 
The growth of political intelligence has fitted the people for 
participation in liberal, constitutional governments. Experi- 
ence has, moreover, shown that the educated, intelligent 
workman has a much greater productive capacity than the 
illiterate one. The money spent on popular education is 
therefore returned to the state with large profits through 
the increase in general prosperity. 

The Abolition of Slavery. — Slavery has existed since the 
most ancient times in all parts of the world, where labor 
was needed for agriculture or industries. We have heard of 
the Phoenician slave trade, and of the cruel treatment of 
slaves under the later Roman republic. Christianity taught 
kindness to slaves, but did not forbid slavery as an institu- 
tion. The slave trade with captives of war, especially 
Saracens, flourished throughout the Middle Ages, Rome 
being one of the principal markets. By the thirteenth 
century, however, slavery was given up, and the slaves were 
gradually turned into serfs. 

That this change was due rather to economic convenience 
than to kindness is proved by the development of the African 
slave trade after the discovery of America. It must not be 



378 MODERN HISTORY 

thought, however, that the white people first taught the 

cruel practice to the blacks. The Portuguese found that 

slavery and slave raids were regularly practised among the 
negro tribes. 

During the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth 
centuries Portugal, Spain, and England all engaged 
in the African slave trade. In the treaty of Utrecht 
(1713) England stipulated that British merchants 
should have the right to import 144,000 negro slaves 
during forty years into the Spanish colonies. 

Towards the close of the eighteenth century some 
members of the English parliament began to denounce 
the slave trade as cruel and barbarous. They gained 
adherents, and were able to pass laws to protect 
the slaves from excessive cruelty. In 1808 England 
passed an act for the abolition of the English slave 
trade. During the following years other states were 
requested to take steps against the evils of slavery. 

The British people gave the noblest proof of their 
kind and disinterested feeling about the slave question 
in 1833. In that year parliament passed a law 
commanding the emancipation of all slaves throughout 
the British colonies. 639,000 slaves were restored 
to freedom. The government paid twenty million 
pounds out of the public funds to the former slave 
owners. The slaves In the French colonies were 
emancipated in 1848, and six years later slavery 
was abolished for all times in all countries under 
French jurisdiction. The terrible civil war fought 
In America on account of the slavery question will 
be mentioned further on. 

Since Africa has fallen under European control, 



PROGRESS OF THE WORLD 379 

the interested powers have entered into agreements 
by which the slave trade has been abolished in all 
parts of that continent. 

The Red Cross Association. — In ancient and mediaeval 
times warfare was apt to be more cruel than it need 
necessarily be. Not only were captives killed, or maltreated, 
or sold into slavery, but the wounded soldiers of their own 
army received only rudimentary medical aid. Since the 
sixteenth century private societies were formed in several 
European countries for the purpose of helping the wounded 
after battles. In modern times sympathy for suffering 
fellow-creatures has become a more general trait. Men have 
learned to understand that war is a struggle between nations 
or governments rather than between individuals. So long as 
war cannot be wholly abolished, one should at least try to 
diminish the suffering which private people have to undergo 
in the service of their state. With this end in view an 
international convention met at Geneva in 1864. 

By the Geneva Convention all the participating 
governments bound themselves to allow the services 
of nurses and doctors on the field during battle. All 
attendants, as well as their wagons, tents, etc., are 
distinguished by a white badge or flag bearing a 
red cross. They are neutral and inviolable, and 
help the wounded of both sides. The various local 
associations for aid to the wounded have united into 
the International Red Cross Association. The orati- 
tude of many thousand men, who under old conditions 
would have perished miserably on the battle-field, 
is the finest tribute to the humaner spirit of modern 
civilization. 

Progress of Medical Skill and of Sanitation. — The 
prevention and the cure of disease have been marvel- 



38o MODERN HISTORY 

lously perfected by scientific discoveries. Humanity 
has been made healthier, stronger, and happier 
wherever modern physicians have been able to extend 
the blessinors of their work. 

The first notable medical discovery of modern times was 
vaccination as a preventive measure against small-pox. 
Variolation, i.e. the artificial inoculation with human small- 
pox, was known in antiquity and is still (in 1908) practised 
in China. It was brought to Europe from Turkey in 17 18. 
Variolation is dangerous, because the inoculated patient can 
infect others with small-pox. Sometimes he may himself 
become so ill as to die. In 1796 the English physician 
Edward Jenner found out that people could be inoculated 
with virus from a cow having the cow-pox. The 'vaccine' 
(Latin vacca = cow) produced only a little pustule on the 
patient, and made him immune against small-pox. Since 
Jenner's time, vaccination has been rendered absolutely safe 
and sure. It has proved to be the grandest and most 
beneficial discovery of medicine. Small-pox epidemics used 
to sweep off tens of thousands per year in single European 
countries. In the German empire, which has compulsory 
vaccination, 15 people died of small-pox in 1898, out of a 
total population of 53,753,140. 

The sanitation of cities has been taken up metho- 
dically since 1850. The recently constructed works for 
pure water supply and for sewage disposal in many 
cases exceed the famous old Roman aqueducts in 
size and in the difficulty of construction. By various 
preventive measures, especially by enforcing the 
strictest cleanliness of towns, the advanced states 
have rendered impossible those epidemics of plague 
and cholera, which used to depopulate Europe. 

The Historical Importance of Medical Progress. — The 
influence on history of all this medical progress is 



PROGRESS OF THE WORLD 381 

profound, though it cannot be directly measured. It 
adds to the efficiency of men in all kinds of employ- 
ments. It does away with those interruptions of public 
enterprise which used to be caused by epidemics. 
The nations are made wealthier and surer of their 
aims. 

What is meant by sureness of aim is strikingly illustrated 
by the work on the Panama Canal. It was started by a 
French company, some time after the successful construction 
of the Suez Canal. But the French attempt ended in failure, 
chiefly on account of the deadly climate of the Isthmus of 
Panama. Fevers and dysentery killed the men by the 
hundreds. When the United States government undertook 
to build the canal, it first sent a commission of experts to 
improve the sanitary conditions. The success of this 
commission stands at the beginning of the twentieth century 
as a triumphal monument to the victories of medical science. 
Fevers and dysentery have been almost banished from the 
canal zone. The engineers can proceed to join the oceans, 
with the certainty that no epidemic will delay or stop their 
plans. 



CHAPTER XXXII 

RECENT HISTORY OF FRANCE, SPAIN, SWITZERLAND, 
BELGIUM, HOLLAND, AND THE SCANDINAVIAN 

COUNTRIES 

Introduction. — The governments that had over- 
thrown Napoleon beheved that they had at the same 
time put an end to the liberal institutions of the 
revolutionary period. They agreed to support the 
divine right of kings, and to suppress all agitation 
for popular rights. But the ideas of the French 
revolution had already spread among the people, 
and no power on earth could obliterate them. As 
the people advanced in education and political intelli- 
gence, they finally forced the governments to grant 
constitutional rule. The period between 1815 and 
1848 is accordingly filled with a struggle between the 
progressive people and the reactionary governments. 

I. FRANCE 

Bourbon Reaction and the July Revolution (1815- 
1830). — After Waterloo Louis XVIII. was again 
restored to the French throne. He ruled accord- 
ing to the wishes of the extreme aristocrats and 
clericalists. 



FRANCE 383 

Not only were republicans persecuted in France, but an 
army was sent across the Pyrenees to help the wicked 
king Ferdinand VII. in overthrowing the Spanish con- 
stitution, which he had already sworn to uphold. Perhaps 
the worst blunder of the royalists was the execution of 
Marshal Ney, the most popular of the Napoleonic generals. 
He had received the title ' the bravest of the brave ' for 
his heroic conduct during the Russian campaign. 

Louis XIII. was succeeded in 1824 by his brother 
Charles X., who was guided by the clerical party. 
When a liberal majority was elected to the legis- 
lative chamber, the king tried to uphold his despotic 
system by declaring the elections to be illegal, and 
by suppressing all liberal newspapers. The Paris 
populace rose in revolt (July, 1830), and after three 
days' street fighting the king had to leave the 
country. 

Reign of Louis Philippe I. (1830-1848). — The new 
king was usually called ' le roi bourgeois ' or ' middle 
class king,' because he owed his throne to the 
support of the well to-do middle class. 

He belonged to the younger branch of the Bourbon 
family. Since the first revolution he had earned his 
living as a teacher in Switzerland, and had travelled in 
America and Europe. He had dropped the family pride, 
and was willing to rule as a constitutional monarch. The 
peasants and artisans hated Louis Philippe, because he 
favored only the wealthier people. During the later 
years of his reign several attempts were made on his life. 
Fear of assassination led him to enact repressive laws, so 
that his rule grew steadily more unpopular. 

In February, 1848, the Paris mob rose in arms 
and demanded a republic. The king fled to England 
under the assumed name of ' Mr. Smith.' 



3 84 MODERN HISTORY 

The French revolutions of 1830 and 1848 were 
the signals for liberal risings all over Europe. 

The Second Republic (i 848-1 851). — Louis Napoleon, 
nephew of the great emperor, was chosen as presi- 
dent of the new republic. He was not a sincere 
republican, but aimed at a renewal of the ' Caesarism ' 
of his uncle. From the start he employed every 
kind of political trickery to win personal adherents. 
Napoleonists were placed in all the prominent offices, 
and the army was won over by systematic corruption. 

The Coup d'Etat of 1851, and the Establishment of 
the Second Empire. — By a carefully arranged plan the 
republican leaders were suddenly arrested at night. 
All resistance was put down by force, and Louis 
Napoleon was made President for ten years. A con- 
spiracy of this kind, resulting in a change of govern- 
ment, is called a * coup d'etat ' (stroke of state), a 
French term which has come into international usag-e. 

A year later Napoleon asked the French people, 
through a popular vote, whether they wished him 
to assume the imperial title. Nearly eight million 
votes were cast in the affirmative. He accordingly 
had himself crowned as Napoleon HL, Emperor of 
the French.^ 

The third Napoleon was a man of considerable 
ability. He gave France eighteen years of internal 
peace. 

Agriculture and industries flourished, many railways 
were built, and the outward splendor of the empire was 
maintained by costly public works. Paris was entirely 

^The son of Napoleon I., to whom the title Napoleon II. would have 
fallen, died as a young man in Austria. 



FRANCE 



385 



reconstructed at enormous cost, and was made into the 
most beautiful capital of the modern world. 

Napoleon's successful expeditions to Russia and Italy, 
which will be described in their proper places, for a while 
raised France to the first place among the great powers. 
Paris became the political centre of Europe. 

But in the second half of his reign Louis Napoleon com- 
mitted a number of blunders in his foreign policy, and finally 
brought about the terrible disaster of the Franco-Prussian war. 

In course of years his whole administration was 
pervaded with dishonest 
practices, and especially 
the army became rotten 
with corruption. 

Causes of the Franco- 
Prussian War. — N apoleon 
III. was constantly out- 
witted in diplomacy by 
the Prussian minister 
Bisma7'-ck. After the 
war between Austria and 
Prussia (1866), which 
will be described in 
the following chapter, 
Napoleon realized that 
the German states under 
Prussian leadership were rising to be a power equal 
to France, if not superior to her. He demanded 
that Prussia should give up to France some terri- 
tory along the Rhine, as a compensation for the 
Prussian gains in Germany. Bismarck knew that 
the French army at the time was not ready for war, 
and refused Napoleon's demand. Many Frenchmen 

G.H. 2 B 




Bismarck. 



386 MODERN HISTORY 

were very jealous of Prussia, and were ready to 
begin war on the first pretext. 

In 1870 the Spanish throne was offered to a prince 
of Hohenzollern, and he accepted. As the Prussian 
king William was the head of the house of Hohen- 
zollern, the French feared lest Spain might now be closely 
allied to Germany. The French government requested 
that the prince should withdraw, and the Prussian king 
complied with its wishes. But now the French ambassador 
in Germany was instructed to demand from the king of 
Prussia a declaration that no Hohenzollern prince should ever 
again come forward as a candidate for the Spanish throne. 

No one expected that the Prussian government would 
submit to such a dictation of its future policy. The refusal 
naturally given by King William was considered by the 
hot-heads in France to be cause for war. The majority of 
the French people did not want war, and Napoleon himself 
was wavering. But Bismarck, who knew that a conflict was 
inevitable, wished to strike while the German army was at 
its highest efficiency. He published a description of the 
interview between King William and the French ambassador, 
in which it seemed as though the latter had been insulted. 
The French chambers at once voted for war. The minister 
for war stated that ' all was ready, even to the last button 
on the soldiers' gaiters.' 

First Phase of the Franco-Prussian War. — When war 
was declared (1870), the Prussian general staff already 
had a complete plan of mobilization. Every detail of 
the advance to the Rhine had been worked out under 
the guidance of Field- Marshal Moltke, one of the 
greatest strategists of all times. Within a fortnioht 
nearly four hundred thousand men were thrown across 
the frontier. 

On the French side the whole campaign was mis- 
managed from the very start. 



FRANCE 387 

Corruption and embezzlement of state funds, which had 
grown into a common evil under Napoleon's administration, 
now bore terrible fruit. The army was 100,000 men short 
of the numbers set down on paper, and only 250,000 could 
take the field at once. The officers had no good maps of 
their own country, and the commissariat was so disorganized, 
that some regiments near the frontier almost starved for 
want of provisions. 

The Germans marched from victory to victory. 
An army of 140,000 men, under Marshal Bazaine, 
was shut up in the fortress of Metz by superior 
German forces. By a series of admirably executed 
marches and fiercely contested battles, Moltke's 
generals surrounded the second imperial army at 
Sedan on September i, 1870. The Emperor him- 
self and 100,000 men had to surrender as prisoners 
of war on the following day. 

The Third Republic, and the Second Phase of the 
Franco-Prussian War. — After the disaster of Sedan 
the Parisians dethroned Napoleon and proclaimed 
the Third Republic. When peace was discussed, 
the Germans demanded the cession of Alsace. But 
the French determined to fight on, rather than to 
give up a foot of soil. 

Paris was invested and bombarded by a part of the 
German army. The fortifications of the capital were 
so strong, that only famine could force the city to 
surrender. For more than four months its two million 
inhabitants were shut off from all communication with 
the outer world, except what could be kept up by 
balloons and by carrier pigeons. 

In the provinces the raising and equipping of new armies 
was carried on with the utmost enthusiasm and energy. 



388 MODERN HISTORY 

The guiding spirit of the national defence was Leon Gam- 
betta. He escaped from Paris in a balloon, and assumed 
a military dictatorship over the provinces. Under his 
direction desperate efforts were made to break through the 
besieging army around Paris. He might have succeeded, 
had it not been for the treachery of Marshal Bazaine. This 
infamous man hoped to win power for himself by keeping 
his army inactive at Metz. When all his intrigues had 
failed, he capitulated, thus surrendering 170,000 men with 
all their officers and munitions of war. His surrender 
released a force of nearly 200,000 Germans for operations 
against the armies of Gambetta. 

In January, 1871, Paris had to surrender. Three 
months later the war was definitely ended by the 
Treaty of Frankfort. France was forced to give 
up Alsace and a part of Lorraine, and to pay the 
enormous indemnity of five milliards of francs, or 
^200,000,000 sterling. The total cost of the war to 
France is estimated at ^600,000,000 sterling. 

France since 1871. — Since 1871 a renewal of war 
between France and Germany has been imminent 
several times. Even now a large section of the 
people is still animated by the desire to revenge 
the great defeat, and to get back Alsace-Lorraine. 
Internally France has been remarkably prosperous. 
All Europe was surprised to see how quickly France 
recovered from the financial losses- of 1871. Royalists 
and Bonapartists have tried to get control of the 
government. But the republic has come through its 
trials with increased vigor, and seems destined for a 
lono- time to remain the French form of Government. 

o o 

The Present Government of France. — The existing French 
government rests on the republican constitution adopted by 



FRANCE 389 

the national assembly in 1875. The President is elected 
by the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies, which unite 
for this purpose into the national assembly. His term of 
ofifice is seven years. He can propose new laws, or, in other 
words, he has the ' initiative ' in legislation. He must 
watch that the laws are properly carried out (briefly, he 
has the 'executive'). He disposes of the army, and appoints 
all civil officials and military officers. 

The Senate and the Chamber of Deputies also have the 
initiative in legislation. A bill (proposed piece of legisla- 
tion) can become law only after being approved by majorities 
in both of these Houses. Senators must be at least forty 
years old, and are chosen for nine years by special electoral 
colleges. The Chamber of Deputies has in fact far more 
power than the Senate. Deputies must be at least twenty- 
five years old, and are elected for four years by universal 
suffrage. 

The President is aided by a Cabinet of eleven Ministers. 
They are appointed by him, but must be in agreement with 
the majority of the Chamber of Deputies. To this body 
they are also responsible for their actions. Through its 
control of the Ministers the Chamber of Deputies is practi- 
cally sovereign over France. 



II. SPAIN 

Through Reaction and Revolution to Constitutionalism, — The 
inner history of Spain during the nineteenth century has 
been a constant struggle between absolutism and liberalism. 
When King Ferdinand, who had been driven out by Napo- 
leon, returned in 18 14, he found a liberal constitution, with 
an elected legislature called the Cortes. He overthrew the 
constitution, maltreated the patriotic leaders of the Cortes, 
and gave full sway to the clergy. Even the mediaeval 
inquisition was revived. 

After six years of absolute rule a widespread insurrection 
forced Ferdinand to accept the constitution and summon 



390 MODERN HISTORY 

the Cortes. But in 1823 the French king, Louis XVIII., 
sent an army to Spain and restored the absolutism by force. 
The political struggles of the rest of the century are not 
important enough to be related here. For two years, 1873 
and 1874, Spain was a republic. 

Since then it has remained a constitutional monarchy, the 
throne being hereditary in the Bourbon dynasty. The 
legislative power is in the hands of the king and the Cortes. 
The latter consist of a Senate representing the aristocracy 
and the wealthy people, and a Congress of Deputies elected 
by the citizens at large. 

The long-continued oppression on part of the kings and 
the Catholic Church have kept the Spanish people poorer 
and more ignorant than those of any other state west of 
Russia. ^ 

Loss of the Colonies. — At the beginning of the 
Napoleonic rule Spain still ov^^ned nearly all of 
Central and South America, except Brazil, which 
was Portuguese. The American colonies refused to 
acknowledge Joseph Bonaparte as their ruler, and 
after the restoration of Ferdinand they were willing 
to return to their allegiance only on condition of being 
granted various liberties. When the king would 
not assent, they declared their independence. The 
Spanish forces were insufficient to win back the 
rebellious colonies, France was anxious to help in 
the task, but the English Prime Minister, Canning, 
would not allow any other European state to interfere 
in American affairs. In 1824 he formally recognized 
the independence of Buenos Ayres, Colombia, and 
Mexico. 

Cuba and Porto Rico in the West Indies, and 
the Philippine Islands remained under Spanish sove- 
reignty until 1898. The Cubans were in a chronic 



SPAIN 391 

state of revolt, which the Spanish armies were unable 
to crush. As American business suffered from the 
constant disorder, the United States Government 
finally demanded that Spain should grant Cuba's 
independence. Spain's refusal led to war. Her 
poorly equipped fleets were annihilated in two battles 
at Manila (Philippines) and at Santiago de Cuba 
{1898). The Philippines and Porto Rico passed into 
the possession of the United States, while Cuba 
received its independence. Nothing is left now of 
the mighty world empire of Charles V. and Philip II., 
except the Canary Islands and a few insignificant 
possessions in Africa. 

III. SWITZERLAND, BELGIUM, AND HOLLAND 

Switzerland. — The Helvetian Republic, which had been 
established by Napoleon, and had been dependent on him, 
was declared to be an independent country after 1 8 1 4. 
Switzerland then consisted of a loose confederation of little 
states, called Cantons. A religious and political dispute led 
to a civil war between the Cantons in 1848. The outcome 
of the war was the present Swiss constitution, in which the 
former ' Confederation ' is changed to a ' Federal State' 
The latter is a more intimate union, in which the central 
government has greater power. It is a step nearer toward 
the formation of a united nation. But the Constitution 
still says that the twenty-two Cantons are ' sovereign, so 
far as their sovereignty is not limited by the federal 
Constitution.' 

There are two houses of legislature, one representative of 
the Cantons, and one of the people at large. The executive 
power rests with a Federal Council of seven members, 
elected for three years by the two houses of the federal 
legislature. In certain respects the Swiss government is a 



392 MODERN HISTORY 

complete democracy. By the ' Referendum^ for example, 
bills passed by the legislatures are referred to the citizens 
for their approval. Only if a majority of the Swiss citizens 
vote in favor of such measures, can they become law. 

Belgium and Holland, — In 1814 the allies united the 
Southern Netherlands with Holland into a single state, 
hoping thus to raise a strong neighbor against France in 
the north-east. But the union was unpopular, because the 
Belgians were mostly Catholics and spoke French, while 
the Dutch-speaking Hollanders were Protestants. The 
Belgians rose at once when they heard of the Paris revolu- 
•tion in 1830, and won their independence. In 1 831 the 
European Powers recognized Belgium as an independent 
state. Its government since then has been a constitutional 
monarchy. 

The Netherlands and Switzerland have reaped much 
honor from being centres of international conferences. 
The Geneva Convention (Red Cross) and the Postal 
Union arose on Swiss soil. The Peace Confer- 
ences at the Hague have united in the Dutch capital 
representatives of all nations for the noble purpose 
of limiting military armaments. The first Peace 
Conference met in 1899 at the suggestion of the 
Russian Emperor, and the second one met in 1907. 
Unfortunately they showed that the day when military 
burdens will be diminished is still far off. 



IV. THE SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES 

Norway and Sweden. — After the treaty of Tilsit, Russia 
had taken Finland from Sweden. The European Powers 
agreed in 18 14 that Sweden should be compensated for 
this loss by annexing Norway. The union between the 
two Scandinavian states, however, was only a 'personal 
union' through their joint sovereign. They formed a Dual 



THE SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES 393 

Monarchy under one king. Foreign relations were managed 
in common, while in all home affairs the two governments 
were separate. In 1905 the union was peaceably dissolved 
by an almost unanimous vote of the Norwegian citizen?. 
Norway now is an independent kingdom, with a very 
democratic constitution. 

Denmark. — Before the Napoleonic wars the Danish 
dominions had included Norway. The Danish king made 
the mistake of allying himself with Napoleon, whereupon 
the British Admiral Nelson destroyed the Danish fleet 
in the harbor of Copenhagen. Norway fell to Sweden, as 
told above. In 1864 Denmark lost its two southern 
provinces, Schleswig and Holstein, which had a German 
population, to Prussia. The Danish government is a 
constitutional monarchy, with a legislature of two houses. 



CHAPTER XXXIII 

THE UNIFICATION OF GERMANY AND OF ITALY 

I. GERMANY 

The Ascendency of Metternich. — Prince Metternick 
was for nearly forty years the soul of Austria's 
government. His policy was wholly reactionary, i.e. 
he opposed constitutional government, freedom of the 
press, and all liberal institutions connected with 
the Revolution. His cleverness in diplomacy gave 
to Austria the first voice in general European affairs. 
By his instigation absolutism was upheld not only 
in Austria, but also in Germany and Italy. 

He helped to bring about the ^ Holy Alliance', which was 
proposed by the Czar Alexander, an impractical visionary, 
for the purpose of ruling Europe according to kind. Christian 
principles. All European rulers, except the English king, 
the Sultan of Turkey, and the Pope, eventually joined this 
alliance. It became one of Metternich's best instruments 
for beating down liberal principles from Russia to Spain. 

The German Confederation of 1815. — After the over- 
throw of Napoleon a Congress of European statesmen 
met at the Austrian capital for the settlement of 
European affairs. The famous Congress of Vienna 
brought back the political map of Europe to nearly 



UNIFICATION OF GERMANY AND OF ITALY 395 

the same boundaries which had existed before the 
French Revolution. 

The German States were formed by the Congress 
into a loose confederation under the presidency of 
Austria. The affairs of the German Confederation 
were guided by a Diet consisting of representatives 
of the various governments, thirty- nine in number. 
The patriots hoped soon to see a united German 
fatherland orow out of the confederation. But the 

o 

rivalry between Austria and Prussia, and the fear 
of the smaller states lest their sovereign rio-hts miwht 
be impaired, delayed the completer union for more 
than half a century. 

The Customs Union. — Common trade interests brought 
the German states together into a Customs Union. For 
commercial purposes this Union was like one country, 
within which goods could be moved without paying any 
duties. When Austria wished to join, Prussia refused. 
Prussia had a natural preponderance in the Customs Union, 
owing to her more numerous population and her extensive 
trade. The material welfare of the German states was much 
advanced by the unhampered exchange of goods, and the 
commercial unity so established formed a sound basis for 
the later political unity. 

The Revolution of 1848. — By the system of Metter- 
nich all liberal aspirations were suppressed throughout 
Germany and Austria. But the hope of political 
freedom was still strong in the hearts of many 
thousands, and the hatred of absolutism grew steadily 
strono-er. When news of the Paris revolution reached 

o 

the German capitals, mobs at once rose in nearly all 
of them and demanded constitutional rule. Metternich 
barely saved his life by escaping from Vienna. The 



396 MODERN HISTORY 

Austrian Emperor for a while also fled from his 
capital. In Berlin there was a bloody encounter 
between the royal troops and the populace. 

Constitutions were now granted everywhere. But 
both in Prussia and in Austria the old orovernments 
kept as much control as they possibly could. Although 
legislative chambers were elected by the people, the 
monarchy remained the real power in the state. 

The War with Denmark, and the Seven Weeks' War. — The 
Danish War of 1864 was mainly due to the strong national 
feeling of the Germans. They no longer could bear to see 
their countrymen in Schleswig-Holstein under Danish rule. 
After a brief campaign Austria and Prussia jointly forced 
the Danish government to give up Schleswig-Holstein. 
Two years later it was incorporated with Prussia. 

It was the final settlement of the Schleswig-Holstein 
question which brought about the long-expected conflict 
between Austria and Prussia. 

Bismarck decided that the time was now ripe to 
settle the rivalry between the two states, and to make 
Prussia the unquestioned head of Germany. He felt 
sure of victory, because the Prussian army had been 
wonderfully perfected, and stood under the leadership 
of a military genius, Count von Moltke. Italy was 
allied with Prussia, while Austria had the South- 
German states on its side. The ' Seven Weeks' 
War' (1866) was a continuous triumph for Prussian 
military organization and strategy. The campaign 
was decided by the battle of Sadowa (also known 
as the battle of Koniggratz, a village in Bohemia). 

Austria was excluded from Germany, and Prussia 
became the head of the '■ North- German Union! 
The Southern states, of which Bavaria was the 



UNIFICATION OF GERMANY AND OF ITALY 397 

largest, still remained outside the Union. They 
were mostly Catholic, while Prussia was Protestant. 
King William I. and Bismarck. — The reconstruction 
of Germany will always be linked with the names 
of Kino^ William I. and his minister Bismarck. 
The king's greatness lay in his choice of able 
counsellors, whom he trusted and supported faithfully. 
He aimed to make Prussia strong through its army, 
and to use the army as an instrument for uniting 
Germany under Prussian leadership. His minister 
Bismarck brought this plan to a successful end. 

As a supporter of monarchy by divine right Bismarck 
was at first hated by the liberals. He was more sagacious 
and energetic than all his opponents. He knew that the 
people cannot learn at once how to make good use of 
political rights, but that the change from absolutist to 
popular government must be very slow. In support of the 
army reorganization Bismarck once said : " It is not by 
speeches and resolutions of majorities that the great questions 
of the time are to be decided . . . but by blood and iron." 
He well deserved his later name, the ' Iron Chancellor.' 

Foundation of the New German Empire (1871). — The 
intense patriotism for the common German fatherland, 
which was aroused by the victories in France, enabled 
Bismarck to complete the union of the states. At 
Versailles, during the siege of Paris, the states joined 
into the Confederation known as the German empire. 
King William was hailed as President with the title 
German Emperor. 

Effects of the Union. — Under the new political order 
Germany has astonished the world by her rapid 
progress. The German steel and textile industry now 
rivals that of Britain. German steamers are seen in 



398 MODERN HISTORY 

all ports of the globe more frequently than those of 
any other flag except the British. The German army 
is admired and feared. The universities of Berlin, 
Jena, Heidelberg, and other cities, are recognized 
as the best and highest centres of learning, and 
attract students from all countries. 

The Government of the German Empire. — The twenty-five 
states constituting the confederation have their independent 
laws and governments, which must not, however, conflict with 
the laws of the Empire. Since 1871 there has been a steady 
tendency towards unification of all affairs concerning the 
common interests of the Empire. 

The executive power lies with the Federal Council 
(Bundesrat) and the Emperor. The Bundesrat consists of 
representatives of the various state governments. The 
imperial office is hereditary in the house of Hohenzollern, 
i.e. the king of Prussia is also German Emperor. 

Legislation is conducted by the Bundesrat, acting as a sort 
of Upper House, and the Imperial Diet (Reichstag), which 
consists of representatives elected by the German people. 

Foreign affairs, the consular service, military and naval 
organization, are entirely under imperial control. 

Austria-Hungary since i 866. — In the troublous times of 1 848 
the Hungarians tried to gain complete independence and a 
free government for themselves. Among the ardent patriots 
who then risked their lives for national liberty, Louis Kossuth 
will always remain famous. The Hungarian uprising was 
beaten down with the help of a Russian army. The Czar 
gladly helped the Austrian government, because he did not 
want the example of a successful rebellion so near his 
own borders. 

In 1867 the 'Emperor Francis Joseph of Austria granted 
a new constitution to his Hungarian subjects. They got 
their own parliament, their own laws, and even their own 
king. Francis Joseph was crowned King of Hungary at the 
old capital city of Budapest. 



UNIFICATION OF GERMANY AND OF ITALY 399 

Since then Austria-Hungary has been a Dual Monarchy, 
united chiefly through the person of the ruler, who is both 
Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary. Both countries 
have made much progress in education, industry, and the 
general welfare of the people. But the two governments 
have been much troubled by the conflicting interests of the 
various nationalities embraced under their rule. Germans, 
Poles, Czechs, Italians, and Magyars all want to see their 
own languages and national aspirations treated with special 
respect. Violent quarrels in the Austrian Parliament are 
therefore of common occurrence. 



II. ITALY 

Early Attempts of Union (18 15- 1850). — In Italy, as 
in Germany, thousands of patriots longed for national 
union and constitutional government. But the king 
of Naples, the Pope, and the Austrians, who held 
Lombardy and Venetia, suppressed every movement 
that threatened the continuance of their rule. 



A secret society called the Carbonari (charcoal burners) 
spread ail over Italy, and counted patriots of all stations 
and both sexes among its ranks. Their repeated revolts 
were crushed with the aid of Austrian troops. Government 
spies pervaded the country, and all suspected persons were 
arbitrarily imprisoned or executed. The teaching of history 
and of political or natural science was forbidden. At Rome 
even vaccination was prohibited, because it reminded of 
the liberal French rule. 

From 1830 to 1848 the able patriot Mazzini, founder 
of the party called Young Italy, tried in vain to bring about 
the establishment of an Italian republic. In 1849 he drove 
the Pope from Rome, and set up a republic. Garibaldi, the 
popular hero of the Italian struggle for liberty, bravely 
defended the new Roman commonwealth against superior 
French forces, until he was beaten and barely saved his life. 



400 MODERN HISTORY 

Foundation of the Kingdom of Italy (1859- 1864). — 
After 1850 there was only one constitutional state in 
Italy, namely the kingdom of Sardinia. It included 
Piedmont, in the western Po valley, where the capital 
Turin was also situated. Victo7^ Emma^mel, the king 
of Sardinia, appointed as his chief minister the great 
statesman Cavoiw. In his courage and foresight 
Cavour resembled Bismarck, He won the friendship 
of England and France by sending an army to help 
them in the Crimean War against Russia. Napoleon 
III., who since his youth had an affection for Italy, 
in turn helped Cavour against Austria. 

In 1859 Austria declared war against Sardinia. 
The allied Sardinian and French troops defeated the 
Austrians in three great battles, of which the last, at 
Solferino in Lombardy, was decisive. Lombardy was 
annexed to Piedmont. The states of Central Italy 
revolted from their absolutist rulers and joined them- 
selves to the realm of Victor Emmanuel. 

In i860 the adventurous hero Garibaldi suddenly 
landed in Sicily with a band of a thousand volunteers, 
and raised a rebellion against the king of Naples, 
of whose dominions Sicily formed a part. With the 
island won over to the party of liberty, Garibaldi 
crossed over to the mainland, and forced the last 
Bourbon king of Naples to abdicate. 

The South now joined hands with the North. In 
1 86 1 Victor Emmanuel was proclaimed king of Italy, 
and so the patriots' dream of fifty years was at last 
realized. 

Only Rome and Venetia were still wanting to complete 
the newly-born Italian nation. The former was held for 



UNIFICATION OF GERMANY AND OF ITALY 401 

the Pope by a French garrison, because the Emperor 
Napoleon wished to keep the affection of his Cathoh'c 
subjects by helping their ' Holy Father.' Venetia remained 
an Austrian province. 

Completion of Italy ; End of the Temporal Power of the 
Popes. — As reward for her alliance with Prussia in the 
Seven Weeks' War of 1866, Italy got Venetia. The Italians 
were beaten by the Austrians both on land and at sea. 
But they simplified Prussia's task by forcing Austria to 
employ an army in the South. 

It was again through Prussian victories that Rome was 
made into the capital of the completed Italian kingdom. 
In 1870 Napoleon withdrew his garrison from Rome, and 
the Papal rule of over a thousand years was ended. 
Pius IX., who was then Pope, refused to agree to the 
loss of his temporal sovereignty. He pretended up to his 
death to be a prisoner in his stately residence, the Vatican, 
and his successors thus far have acted upon the same theory. 

Italy since 1870. — As in Germany, so also in Italy the 
national union proved beneficial in every respect. The 
population increased rapidly. Roads and railways were 
built, agriculture was improved, and new industries were 
started. 

For many years the relations with France were strained, 
because the latter occupied Tunis, in Africa, which Italy 
wished to keep under her own influence. In 1883 the 
Italian government entered into a Triple Alliance with 
Austria and Germany. This league counterbalanced the 
Dual Alliance between France and Russia. Both agree- 
ments are still in force (1908). By the obligations of the 
Triple Alliance Italy was forced to keep a very expensive 
army and navy. The military expenditures caused much 
dissatisfaction and even rioting among the people. 

The government of Italy rests on the constitution of 
the former kingdom of Sardinia, issued in 1848. It is 
a limited monarchy with two chambers, of which the lower 
one is elected by the people. 
G.H. 2 c 



CHAPTER XXXIV 

RUSSIA AND THE BALKANS IN THE NINETEENTH 

CENTURV^ 

Alexander I. and Nicholas I. — The Emperor Alexander I. 
of Russia was a dreamy man with little will power, who 
was easily influenced by his surroundings. After 1 8 1 5 
he began to introduce liberal reforms, and even promised 
a constitution. When the Greeks tried to win their liberty 
from the Sultan he encouraged them. Then Metternich 
pointed out to him that the revolutions in various parts 
of Europe endangered law and order everywhere, and so 
won him back to the cause of absolutism. The disappoint- 
ment of the Russian liberals led to a secret plan of 
murdering the Czar and proclaiming a republic. Just then 
Alexander died (1825), and was succeeded by his brother 
Nicholas (1825-1855). He beat down a rebellion in St. 
Petersburg, and continued throughout his reign to uphold 
autocracy with relentless energy. 

The Greek Struggle for Liberty. — The Greeks had 
been under Turkish rule since the beginning of the 
sixteenth century. The example of the French 
Revolution revived their old love for liberty. Secret 
patriotic societies v^ere formed, and in 1820 an open 
rebellion broke out. For the next ten years Greece 
was devastated by the most cruel war, in which the 
patriots displayed fine heroism. Russia, England, and 



RUSSIA AND THE BALKANS 403 

France finally intervened. The Turkish fleet was 
destroyed by the allies in the battle of Navarino 
(1827). In 1830 the Sultan was forced to acknowledge 
the sovereign kingdom of Greece. 

War between Russia and Turkey (1828-1829)* — The 
Sultan blamed Russia for the Greek revolt, and gave 
the Czar a welcome chance to declare war. The 
Turkish army being in a disorganized state, the 
Russians won an easy victory. They might have 
marched on Constantinople, but did not wish to 
provoke the jealousy of the other powers. By the 
treaty of Adrianople Turkey ceded a strip of the 
eastern coast of the Black Sea. Various ri2:hts and 
privileges were also granted to Russia, which greatly 
strengthened her influence in the Black Sea remons. 

Russia's Need of Access to the Ocean. — Peter the Great 
was the first to recognize that Russia needed sea ports if 
she was to develop her resources. His policy was continued 
during the nineteenth century. A powerful fleet guarded 
the Russian commerce in the Baltic Sea. 

The Black Sea long remained under Turkish control. 
Turkey could stop Russian ships from sailing into the 
Mediterranean, by blocking the Bosporus and the Dar- 
danelles. Constantinople was the key to the natural 
southern gateway of Russia, and that key was in the hands 
of a decaying state. It was inevitable that Russian states- 
men should plan to dismember Turkey, get Constantinople, 
and so win for their country an open road to the sea. 

Conflicting Interests of England. — The advance of Russian 
power in Central Asia towards India alarmed England. 
The British highway to India lay through the Suez Canal 
(since 1869). If Turkey were to fall, a Russian fleet would 
soon control the Eastern Mediterranean, and endanger the 
free passage through the Suez Canal. Russia would then 



404 MODERN HISTORY 

menace the Indian Empire both by land and by sea. 
Therefore, England determined to prevent the fall of 
Turkey. 

Tlie Eastern Question. — The problem, What is to become 
of Turkey? constitutes the difficult 'Eastern Question.' 
Russia and Great Britain are not the only states concerned 
with the question, Austria-Hungary, being the close 
neighbor of Turkey, cannot be indifferent to measures 
which may affect her own welfare. France must aim to 
preserve for herself the largest possible amount of naval 
power in the Mediterranean. For Italian commerce and 
sea power the future of the Turkish Adriatic coast is of 
vital concern. Lastly, the German Empire has developed 
an extensive trade in the Turkish dominions, and has 
hopes of becoming the controlling power in Asia Minor 
and Mesopotamia. Germany has found it expedient to 
help Turkey in the reorganization of her army, which is 
trained by German officers. 

The Eastern Question is a constant menace to European 
peace. The Greek Revolution and the Russo-Turkish War 
of 1 828- 1 829 were only earlier phases of the question. 
We shall now tell of two further stages, the Crimean War 
and the Russo-Turkish War of 1877- 187 8. 

The Crimean War (1853- 1856). — Greek Catholic and 
Roman Catholic religious associations quarrelled about 
the possession of some holy places in Jerusalem. 
Napoleon III., w^ho courted the Catholic party in 
France, supported the Roman Catholic claims, and 
the Czar Nicholas, as head of the Greek Church in 
Russia, helped the Greek Catholics. Nicholas finally 
demanded that the Sultan should recognise him as the 
protector of all Greek Christians under Turkish rule. 
Counting on help from Western Europe, the Sultan 
refused. The Russians at once opened hostilities by 
destroying a Turkish squadron in the Black Sea. 



RUSSIA AND THE BALKANS 405 

France and England took the side of the Sultan. 
Cavour sent a Sardinian army for the wisely- calculated 
purpose of winning French and English sympathy for 
Italian union. As for Napoleon, he hoped chiefly to 
get glory for his dynasty. 

The allied armies besieged the fortress of Sebastopol 
in the Crimea for eleven months. The winter cam- 
paign was terrible, and caused both sides enormous 
losses through privation and disease. When Sebasto- 
pol was finally taken and Russia was nearly exhausted 
by the cosdy war, the Treaty of Paris was agreed 
upon (1856). 

By this treaty both Russia and all other nations 
were forbidden to keep any warships on the Black 
Sea. No military arsenal was to be maintained on 
the Black Sea coasts. Russia's boundary was moved 
back from the Danube. The Powers enofaCTed to 
respect the independence and integrity of the Ottoman 
Empire. 

Their aim was to preserve Turkey as a bulwark against 
Russia. But during the succeeding years the Turkish 
government, by its own incapacity, made further interference 
in its affairs inevitable. The powers could not look on 
idly, while thousands of inoffensive Christians were mas- 
sacred by their Mohammedan fellow subjects. 

The Roumanians north of the Danube were able to 
form the independent principality of Roumania in conse- 
quence of the war. 

In 1 87 1, after the defeat of France, England could not 
stop Russia from reasserting her right to have fortresses 
and warships on the Black Sea. 

The Russo-Turkish War (187 7- 1878). — The constant 
outrages against the Christians in Turkey excited 



4o6 MODERN HISTORY 

the anger of the Russian people. England, fearing 
the advance of Russia towards the South, blocked the 
efforts of the continental powers to force reforms upon 
Turkey. Among the Turks themselves racial and 
religious fanaticism was stirred up by the prospect of 
foreign interference. The racial hatred culminated 
in fearful massacres in Bulgaria. 

As the Porte ( = Turkish government) obstinately 
repelled all suggestions of reform, England could no 
longer prevent the Russian declaration of war. The 
Turkish armies fought splendidly, but were at last 
captured or dispersed. (Siege and Capture of Plevna; 
storming of the Shipka Pass.) The Russians advanced 
within a few miles of Constantinople. If the capital 
had been occupied the British fleet lying in the 
Bosporus at once would have opened fire. For 
some time war between Russia and Great Britain 
was hourly imminent. 

The Congress of Berlin (1878). — A Congress of 
ministers at Berlin finally settled on a treaty satis- 
factory to both England and Russia. Turkey was 
deprived of a considerable part of her European 
territory. The provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina 
were placed under Austrian administration. Monte- 
negro, Servia, Bulgaria, and Roumania were recog- 
nized as independent states. Greece got the provinces 
of Thessaly and Epyrus, thus doubling the area of 
the kingdom. Russia came out of the war both with 
honor and profit. Her borders were again advanced 
to the mouth of the Danube, and south of the 
Caucasus she kept the strong fortress of Kars and 
the valuable seaport of Batotim. England promised 



RUSSIA AND THE BALKANS 407 

to help the Porte if Russia should try to conquer 
more territory in Asia Minor. In return the Sultan 
ceded the Island of Cyprus to England. 

The Eastern Question at the Beginning of the Twentieth 
Century. — The quarrels between Christians and Moham- 
medans in the Ottoman Empire still continue. To preserve 
order in Macedonia (the province corresponding approxi- 
mately to the original kingdom of Philip II,), the Powers 
have obliged the Sultan to employ foreign police. But it 
seems that nothing less than the expulsion of the Turks 
from Europe will bring quiet; and any further step toward 
that expulsion will probably result in European war. 

Russian Central Asia. — When the conquest of Siberia was 
completed at the close of the sixteenth century, the Cossacks 
began to turn their eyes toward Central Asia. Two large 
expeditions to Khiva (17 17 and 1839) were lost nearly to 
the last man. Thereafter the Russian generals practised a 
slower but surer method of conquest, by building gradually 
a series of fortified places. The Kirghiz nomads submitted 
in 1847. In 1855 Cossack settlements were established in 
some of the fertile valleys along the slopes of the T'ien-shan 
mountains, south of the Hi river. The southward advance 
was now carried forward methodically, and in 1865 the 
important trading city of Tashkent was taken by storm. 
The Amir of Bokhara did his utmost to repel the invaders, 
but he was beaten again and again. In 1868 the Russian 
flag floated over Samarkand. 

Meanwhile the Khan of Khiva had annoyed the Russians 
by constant raids. His state was reduced to vassalage by 
a carefully planned attack in 1873. Three columns con- 
verged on the oasis of Khiva from three sides, and took 
the city by storm. 

Threatened Conflict between Russia and China (1881). — A 
revolt of the Mohammedans in Eastern Chinese Turkestan 
brought Kashgar and the adjoining countries under the 
dominion of Jakoob Beg (1864). During the disorder 



4o8 MODERN HISTORY 

attendant on the rebellion the Russians temporarily occupied 
Kuldja in the upper Hi valley (1871). When Jakoob 
Beg was murdered, the Chinese were able to restore their 
sovereignty. They asked the Russians to evacuate Kuldja. 
The latter began to prepare for the use of force. But they 
thought it more politic to yield, and gave back to China 
all but one-sixth of the land. 

Occupation of the Pamir; Eussia's Military Position. — In 
1 89 1 the Russians completed their conquest of Central 
Asia by occupying the Pamir. An Anglo-Russian com- 
mission settled in 1895 the boundary between Russian 
Central Asia and Afghanistan. The military position of 
Russia has been strengthened by the building of two railway 
lines, which converge near Tashkent, coming, the one from 
the Caspian Sea and the other from Orenburg on the Ural. 
Russian armies can now be sent from Europe into Chinese 
Turkestan or into India inside of two weeks. 

The Development of Siberia. — After the conquest of Siberia 
during the first half of the seventeeth century, the coloniza- 
tion of that vast country proceeded very slowly. The world 
at large thought of Siberia as a dreadfully cold and barren 
country, to which the Russian government sent convicts 
and political exiles. 

The true value of Siberia as a country of vast agricultural 
and mineral resources was made clear by a number of 
scientific expeditions during the period i 800-1 850. Since 
then immigration from European Russia has steadily 
increased. In 1902 the population exceeded six millions, 
of which 61% were Russians. It is Southern Siberia, the 
land adjoining the Chinese boundary, which is being so 
rapidly developed. 

An ukase (Russian term for Imperial edict) of the 
Emperor Alexander III. ordered in 1891 the building 
of the Trans-Siberian Railway. This greatest railv^^ay 
enterprise in history was opened for through-traffic 
in 1903 by the completion of the Russo-Chinese 



RUSSIA AND THE BALKANS 409 

Railway through Manchuria. A traveller could now 
reach Peking from London in seventeen days, while 
the oversea journey took five weeks. The attitude 
of Russia in the Manchurian question, which will be 
treated below, was wholly determined by the com- 
pletion of the railway. Thereafter large bodies of 
troops could readily be transported from Europe and 
Siberia to the Far East, 

Russia in the Far East. — We have learned that the 
treaty of Nerchinsk (1689) stopped Russian aggres- 
sions on the Amur river for nearly two hundred 
years. In 1854 Muravieff, the governor of Eastern 
Siberia, conducted a Russian flotilla down the Amur, 
and occupied the land on its left bank. The Chinese 
government was too weak to resist, having just been 
beaten by the Anglo-French expedition to Peking, 
and being still in danger from the Taiping rebels. 
By the treaties of 1858 and 1861 China ceded to 
Russia all land to the left of the Amur and to the 
right of the Ussuri river, up to the Korean boundary. 

By the treaty of Shimonoseki^ (1895) Japan was 
to take possession of the Liaotung peninsula. Russia, 
jointly with Germany and France, objected to this 
territorial aggrandizement of the Japanese empire, and 
the latter had to be content with the payment of 
an increased war indemnity. The Russian govern- 
ment guaranteed the loan raised by China for the 
payment of the first instalment of this indemnity. 
In return certain military advantages in Manchuria 
were granted to Russia. 

Three years later (1898) the Peking government 
was obliged to agree to a new treaty with Russia. 

^See p. 465. 



4IO MODERN HISTORY 

The harbors of Talien-wan and Po7't Arthur (Lii- 
shunkou) were leased for twenty-five years, and 
Russia got a concession for a railway connecting 
these ports, through Manchuria, with the Siberian 
railway. 

During the Boxer troubles (i 900-1 901) Manchuria 
was completely occupied by Russian troops. The 
Russian Minister at Peking tried to negotiate a 
treaty, assuring to his country the sovereignty over 
Manchuria. But the other Powers viewed this step 
unfavorably, so that Russia thought it better to 
promise in the treaty of 1902 that Manchuria should 
be oriven back to China. 

Causes of the Russo-Japanese War, — For the develop- 
ment of Siberia the Russian g-overnment needs an ice- 
free port on the Pacific Ocean. Vladivostok is not 
satisfactory, because its harbor freezes for two months 
every winter, during which navigation is kept up 
with difficulty by means of ice-breakers. Port Arthur 
provided an admirable ice-free harbor, which the 
Russian War Office at once started to fortify on an 
enormous scale. In the neighboring bay of Talien- 
wan, the commercial port of Dahiy was constructed 
at great expense. 

Japan was a rising power with an energetic and 
rapidly increasing population. It needed more ex- 
tended fields of enterprise and new land. Robbed 
of the fruits of its victory in 1895, it regarded the 
activity of the Russian colossus on the opposite 
shores of the continent with growing alarm and 
anger. The success of Russia would forever condemn 
Japan to remain a small island power. The situation 



122° 



124° 



126° 



«" 



THE MANCHURIAN 
CAMPAIGN 



rbin 




Stanford's Geo^i Estate, London. 



412 MODERN HISTORY 

was brought to a crisis, when the Russians began 
to interfere in Korean affairs, and, while repeating 
their promises of evacuation, constantly strengthened 
their military hold on Manchuria. 

Russian and Japanese Preparations. — When the war broke 
out, Russia had an available army of 158,000 men in the 
Far East. These troops were, however, scattered about, 
large garrisons being required for Port Arthur and Vladi- 
vostok. Reinforcements came over the Siberian railway, 
but they came too slowly for the pressing needs of the 
Russian commanders. 

Japan had a standing army of 200,000 men and a 
reserve of 100,000 in readiness. To this should be added 
the second reserve force of 100,000 men. 165,844 men 
could at once take the field. 

As for naval forces, the Japanese had an overwhelming 
superiority, the bulk of the Russian navy lying in an 
unready condition in the Baltic docks and harbors. . 

The war began too soon for Russia, and surprised her 
with wholly inadequate preparations. 

The Japanese secure Control of the Sea. — Hostilities 
were begun suddenly and energetically by the 
Japanese fleet. At midnight on February 9, 1904, 
while the Port-Arthur garrison was enjoying some 
festivities, Japanese torpedo boats entered the harbor 
and damaged three ships. The first success was soon 
followed by others, until the few remaining Russian 
warships could no longer show themselves out at sea. 
The Japan Sea and the Yellow Sea were now under 
Japanese control, and the transport vessels could in 
safety take troops and supplies to the theatre of war. 

Beginning of the Land Campaign. — The inferior 
Russian forces were driven back from the Yalu 
River \ the Liaotung peninsula with Port Arthur 



RUSSIA AND THE BALKANS 



413 



was cut off from the main army in Manchuria. The 
great fortress, supposed to be an impregnable bul- 
wark, was unfinished and poorly supplied. A separate 
Japanese army under general Nogi was entrusted 
with the task of reducing Port Arthur. 




Oyama. 



Battle of Liaoyang". — The main Russian army under 
general Kuropatkin was concentrated in a strong 
position near the city of Liaoyang, in Southern Man- 
churia. It consisted of about 200,000 men. Aofainst 
this force three Japanese armies, aggregating also 
about 200,000 men, advanced under the command 
of Field- Marshal Oyama. After six days of pre- 



414 MODERN HISTORY 

liminary fighting, a tremendous two days' battle was 
fought (August 30-31, 1904). Three days later 
Kuropatkin had to order a retreat. During the ten 
days' fighting the Japanese lost 21,600 and the 
Russians 16,000 officers and men. 

Fall of Port Arthur. — Meanwhile the siege of Port 
Arthur was pressed regard lessly of human life. The 
Russian soldiers disfended the various forts with a 
heroism equalling that of the storming parties. But 
the Russian g-enerals did not aa"ree about the tactics 
to be followed. The commander-in-chief, Stossel, 
acted in a manner so weak and vacillating, that it 
almost looked like treason towards his own country. 
On January i, 1905, he capitulated. General Nogi's 
army could now swell the forces opposing Kuropatkin 
at Mukden. 

The Battle of Mukden. — After their victory at 
Liaoyang the Japanese generals followed the Russians 
slowly and cautiously. South of the strongly in- 
trenched Russian line at Mukden they went into 
winter quarters. The severe cold precluded extensive 
operations until spring time. Meanwhile Kuropatkin 
was reinforced by fresh troops from Europe until 
he had about 350,000 men at his disposal, not 
counting the forces scattered at other points. Field- 
Marshal Oyama was better supplied. In addition 
to new levies from Japan he was joined by the army 
of Port Arthur. His total force was above 400,000. 

The plan of the Japanese generals was to envelop 
the Russian positions from the flanks, while keeping 
up a steady frontal attack. After two weeks of 
terrible fighting the plan almost succeeded. On 



RUSSIA AND THE BALKANS 41 S 

March 10 the Czar received a telegram from 
Kuropatkin, ' I am surrounded.' But the worst fears 
of the Russian government were not realized. By 
a hurried retreat the remnants of the beaten army 
escaped before the Japanese could close their vast 



Togo, 

circle. Each side lost about 100,000 men. The battle 
of Mukden will always rank as one of the grandest 
and most fearful conflicts in historv, as reeards the 
number of the forces engaged, the fierce bravery 
displayed on both sides, the lives sacrificed, and the 
results attained. 



4i6 MODERN HISTORY 

The Battle of the Sea of Japan. — So long as Japan 
controlled the sea, her armies could be constantly 
strensfthened from their home base. To sever the 
connection between Japan and the mainland was 
the only method that could bring an ultimate 
Russian victory. Two big fleets were dispatched 
for this task from the Baltic Sea. They were 
awaited at the Strait of Tsushima, the southern 
entrance to the Sea of Japan, by the Japanese fleet 
under admiral Togo. 

On May 29, 1905, the newspapers announced that 
" the greatest battle since Trafalgar began ... in the 
Korean Straits. Admiral Rozhdestvensky s great 
armada was shattered, nearly all his fighting ships 
having been either sunk or captured." ^ The Japanese 
losses were slight. 

The Peace of Portsmouth (Sept. 5, i905).^The pleni- 
potentiaries of the two powers agreed on a treaty of 
peace at Portsmouth, U.S.A. Article II. says : 
"... Russia recognizes the preponderant interests, 
from political, military, and economic points of view, 
of Japan in the Empire of Korea, and . . . will not 
oppose any . . . control that Japan will deem necessary 
to take in Korea." Article IV.: "... the lease of 
Port Arthur and Dalny . . . shall pass over entirely 
to Japan. . . ." Article IX.: " Russia ceded to Japan 
the southern part of Sakhalin Island. . . ."^ 

Causes of the Russian Defeat. — These can be found in the 
merits of the Japanese and the defects of the Russian 

^ From the London Times. 

2 The significance of this treaty will be discussed at the close of the 
last chapter. 




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4i8 MODERN HISTORY 

military and naval organizations. For many years before 
the war the Russian government had been internally 
suffering from the evils of corruption which are so often 
met among the officialdom of an autocracy. Many Russian 
officers were unfit as leaders, somewhat like many of 
Napoleon's officers in 1870. As for the fleet of Admiral 
Rozhdestvensky, it had incurred the ridicule of the West 
before it reached the East. Its defeat was predicted by 
naval critics. The glory of Admiral Togo and his fleet 
lay not so much in the victory as in the scientific com- 
pleteness of the victory, which had been prepared by years 
of foresight and efficiency. 

The moral advantage, which comes from enthusiasm for 
a just cause, was entirely on the Japanese side. The 
Mikado's soldiers fought for the independence of their own 
country.^ Most of the Russian soldiers had never heard of 
Manchuria before the war. They fought unwillingly,and would 
have yielded more readily had it not been for the inborn per- 
sistency that has always distinguished the Russian character. 

The Internal Struggle between Reform and Reaction 

(185 5- 1 905). — An important step from mediaevalism 
to modern conditions was taken when the Czar Alex- 
ander II. (185 5-1 881) proclaimed the einancipation of 
the 23,000,000 serfs. They were now free men, but 
their economic condition was still bad. The dis- 
satisfaction with the autocratic rule led to the formation 
of the secret society called ^Nihilists! Their plan 
was to force reform by assassination. The govern- 
ment replied by deporting thousands to Eastern 
Siberia. In 1881 Alexander signed an ukase 
establishing the beginnings of a constitution. Just 

^The victory, it is true, gave new territories to Japan, whence her 
war might easily be considered as one of conquest. Russian success, 
however, with the Japan Sea controlled by a Russian fleet, would have 
threatened the future independence of Japan. 



RUSSIA AND THE BALKANS • 419 

before its intended publication he was killed by a 
Nihilist bomb. 

His successor upheld the autocracy by means of 
exile and imprisonment. A similar course was pursued 
by the present Czar, Nicholas II., during the first 
ten years of his reign. 

Through the influence of Minister Witte a liberal 
manifesto was issued in 1903. Toleration was granted 
to all religious sects. Reform of the provincial and 
district administration was promised. But the old 
order returned a few months later with Minister 
Plehwe, the reactionary opponent of Witte. Political 
assassination and local riots became of almost daily 
occurrence. In July, 1904, Plehwe himself, who was 
considered as the arch-enemy of reform, was murdered. 

The Russian Revolution (1905). — When the war with 
Japan revealed the shameless egotism and corruption 
of the bureaucracy, the indignant people broke out 
into open revolution. 

The famous reformer, Count Tolstoy, at the same time 
condemned the war as barbarous, and told the people that 
they should refuse to enlist. Strikes of workmen and riots 
of reservist soldiers had to be suppressed by the government 
troops. A very dangerous situation arose in the Black Sea, 
where the sailors of the largest warship mutinied, and the 
crews of the other vessels refused to fire on them. 

At last the Czar yielded to the earnest advice of 
his ministers, and signed a rescript promising reform. 

The rescript said, in part : " I am resolved henceforth, with 
the help of God, to convene the worthiest men possessing the 
confidence of the people and elected by them to participate 
in the elaboration and consideration of legislative measures." 



420 MODERN HISTORY 

Establishment of a National Assembly. — On August i8, 
1905, the Czar granted a Constitution, which says, in 
Paragraph I. : " The Dicma is established for the pre- 
liminary study and discussion of legislative proposals 
which, according to the fundamental laws, will be 
submitted to the supreme autocratic authority by the 
Council of the Empire." The right to vote was 
restricted to persons holding a considerable amount 
of property. In Moscow and St. Petersburg, for 
example, only one person out of every hundred could 
vote. The liberals were dissatisfied. 

First Session of the Duma (May 10, 1906). — The 
first Duma was opened by the Czar in the Winter 
Palace at St. Petersburg, May 10, 1906. At 
the opening ceremonies, the representatives of the 
people showed hostility against the Emperor's views. 
He still upheld the autocratic principle, while the 
Duma wished to see him a truly constitutional 
monarch. The conflict of opinions continued, and 
the Duma was dissolved in July, having accomplished 
little beyond the proof that the revolutionary epoch 
was not yet ended. The Emperor's advisers again 
turned him towards reaction. 

The Second Duma, which met on March 5, 1907, 
was also a failure. It was dissolved by the Czar in 
June of the same year. Nicholas II. remained the sole 
responsible autocrat of all the Russians. The third 
Duma of November, 1907, was more submissive than 
its predecessors. In December it listened to a declara- 
tion of the Prime Minister, that the autocracy subsisted 
as a supreme power to which the Czar would resort 
whenever the safety of Russia demanded it. 



CHAPTER XXXV 

THE BRITISH EMPIRE AND THE COLONIAL 
EXPANSION OF EUROPE 

Introductory. — The term ' British Empire ' usually means 
the colonies and dependencies of Great Britain, as apart 
from the home country itself. We shall use the word in 
its completer sense, comprising the mother country as well 
as its colonies in our brief treatment of the modern British 
Empire. 

British Power at the Close of the Napoleonic Wars. — 

We have learned that Portugal, France, and Spain 
were all in their day at the head of dependencies 
vaster than the lands owned by England at that 
time. When the English at last bent their energy 
on colonization they steadily outstripped their rivals. 
The Peace of Utrecht (17 13), at the close of the 
War of the Spanish Succession, had called for the 
cession from France to England of Newfoundland, 
Nova Scotia, and Hudson Bay Territory. Spain had 
given up Gibraltar. The victories over France during 
the Seven Years' War (ended by Peace of Paris, 
1 763) had added Canada, and had assured British 
supremacy in India (compare close of Ch. xxvi.). 
During the years 1768 to 1779 Captain James Cook 



422 



MODERN HISTORY 



explored the coasts of Australia ^ and New Zealand,, 
and established England's claim to these countries. 

At the Congress of Vienna (i 815) England remained 
satisfied with a few small acquisitions, of which Malta 
is the most noteworthy. This island has since then 

grown into the mainstay 
of British naval power in 
the Mediterranean. 

The Basis of British 
Power. — The vast British 
Empire was won and held 
chiefly through the British 
naval superiority. Dur- 
ing the gigantic struggle 
with Napoleon the English 
sailors had triumphantly 
proved that * Britannia 
rules the waves.' The war 
fleet was in turn main- 
tained by the flourishing industries and the world- 
wide commerce of England. 

The underlying cause of British success must be: 
sought in the geographical position of England, in 
the character of the people, and in their political 
institutions. As regards the advantages of insularity, 
it is suf^cient to remind the reader that without the 
natural barrier of the sea Eng-land would have been 
at the mercy of Napoleon. 

1 No mistake is commoner than the confusion of the names 'Austria*' 
and 'Austraha.' Austria, in German 'Osterreich' (C>j'^=east, rcich = 
realm), means the east (of the other German states) realm. Australia 
comes from the first Latin name of the country, ' Terra Australis ' {terra = 
land, australis =souihtxn\ meaning the southern land. 




Captain Cook. 



THE BRITISH EMPIRE 423 

The settlement and development of the colonies 
was much more due to private initiative than to 
government action. The pioneers and traders, who 
carried British influence over the world, made their 
way by enterprise, pluck, and fair dealing. Wherever 
they went they carried with them their home idea 
of justice and truthfulness.^ 

English Government at the Beginning of the Nine- 
teenth Century. — The English Parliament theoretically 
consisted of representatives of the people. In fact, 
however, it was an oligarchy of the Ci^own and the 
noble families. The common man had no share in 
the government. This condition seems so opposed 
to English traditions of liberty, that it needs some 
explanation. 

As related in the passage on George III. (Chapter 
XXVII.), that ruler secured for himself a majority 
in Parliament by methodical bribery and gifts of 
office. Such practices were then considered as legiti- 
mate political expedients. The purchase of a seat in 
Parliament was no shameful thing, and was not even 
kept secret. Many seats became the acknowledged 
property of certain powerful families. By the indus- 
trial revolution (see Chapter xxxi.) new centres of 
population sprang up, while some other districts were 
almost depopulated. The assignment of votes for 
parliamentary elections meanwhile remained un- 
changed. Big cities like Manchester - had no vote, 
and half-deserted country districts, called ' rotten 

^This does not imply that all Englishmen were just and truthful, but 
that these qualities distinguished the race above its competitors. During 
the eighteenth century the standards of truthfulness and justice were 
lower than they are now. 



424 MODERN HISTORY 

boroughs,' might send two members to Parliament. 
Representation was a mere pretence. 

Luckily for England there prevailed among its aristocracy 
a high order of political ability and of patriotism. The 
Parliaments and Ministries of the eighteenth century can 
be well compared with the Roman Senate before the decline 
of the Republic. Both bodies guided an imperial policy 
with wisdom and efficiency. The greatest leaders of the 
Parliament were the two Pitts. William Pitt the Elder, 
Earl of Chatham (1708- 1778), also called the Great 
Commoner, directed England's policy during the Seven 
Years' War with restless energy. His mighty eloquence 
made him the autocrat of the House of Commons. His 
second son, William Pitt the Younger (1759-1806), was 
already Chancellor of the Exchequer (Minister of Finance) 
at the age of twenty-four. As Prime Minister he organized 
the second and the third European coalition against Napoleon. 

Faults of the System ; Loss of the American Colonies. — The 
defenders of the eighteenth century system of Representa- 
tion maintained that every member of Parliament repre- 
sented the whole British Empire, and that it was unessential 
in what part of the Empire he was elected. And since the 
Parliament represented both the home country and the 
colonies, it could pass laws which would be binding in 
the colonies. The Englishmen living in America held an 
opposite view. They said that only districts sending their 
own elected representative to Parliament were properly 
represented. And without such representation, so they 
claimed, they could not be taxed. (Compare Chapter 
XXVIII.) The dispute over this principle finally led to 
the loss of the most valuable English colonies, and to the 
formation of the United States. In England a considerable 
minority agreed with the Americans, and wished to see a 
reform of representation in the House of Commons. 

Causes for the Delay of Reform.— The English people 
have always valued law and order above fine political 



THE BRITISH EMPIRE 425 

theories. They have gone slowly and cautiously in 
their changes of government, and have so escaped the 
tumults which shook all the other European states 
since the beginning of the French Revolution. 

When the cry of 'liberty, equality, fraternity,' rang 
through France, England was about to introduce 
reforms. At first the liberal movement was hastened 
by the French example. But the excesses against 
the king and the ruling classes produced a complete 
revulsion of feelingr in Enoland. Rather than to see 
the English masses infected by the French frenzy, 
the nation chose internal order under a reactionary 
regime. 

The Reform Act (1832). — The first steps towards a 
juster distribution of political rights were taken in 
1828 and 1829. First the Protestant dissenters 
(those dissenting from the Established Church) and 
then the Catholics were freed from certain religious 
impediments which had hitherto excluded them from 
government positions. 

After long resistance of the upper classes, and not 
without riots on the part of the people, the famous 
Refo7^m Act was passed in 1832. The rotten 
boroughs were abolished, and the new manufacturing 
cities henceforth sent representatives to the House 
of Commons. The Reform Act " accomplished a 
great transference of power, in favor of the middle 
classes in the towns. Though it did not establish a 
democracy, it took a long step in that direction."^ 

Cliartisin. — The workmen of England were not satisfied 
with the reform bill, because it still excluded poorer people 

1 S. R. Gardiner, A Student's History of England. 



426 



MODERN HISTORY 



from the franchise. Their leaders drew up the People's 
Charter, which, among other changes, demanded the aboli- 
tion of property quaHfications for seats in Parliament, the 
adoption of manhood suffrage, and the payment of salaries 
to the members of the House of Commons. The enthusiasm 
for reform did not, however, extend beyond small groups, 
and the whole movement died out after a big demonstration 
in 1848. 

From Protection to Free Trade. — The English government, 
in common with other states, used to levy heavy duties 

on all classes of imported 
goods. The chief object of 
the duties was to protect 
home industries against for- 
eign competition. To the 
mass of the people the pro- 
tective duties were a burden, 
because they artificially raised 
the prices of the necessaries 
of life. Most onerous were 
the corn laws. They pre- 
vented the importation of 
foreign wheat, so long as 
grain sold in the English 
market under a certain high 
price. The corn laws benefited the land owners, but kept 
the poor laborers near the starving point. 

An Anti-Corn-Law League was formed under the leader- 
ship of Richard Cobden and John Bright. By speeches and 
pamphlets they kept up agitation, and convinced the manu- 
facturers and laborers that the duties on grain should be 
abolished. They won the support of Sir Robert Peel, who 
became Prime Minister in 1841. The corn laws were 
abolished in 1846. Other duties soon shared the same 
fate. "In 1842 there were twelve hundred articles on 
which duty was levied at British ports. A iow years later 
there were only twelve, and these were retained merely for 




Sir Robert Peel. 



THE BRITISH EMPIRE 427 

revenue." ^ Since then England has adhered to free trade. 
This means that goods could enter and leave the country 
without paying any duties. British commerce has flourished 
under free-trade principles. 

Many students of economics believe that England should 
now return, in part at least, to a protective system, com- 
mercial conditions having changed entirely since Cobden's 
time. Then England was without an industrial rival. Now 
Germany and the United States, both having protective 
tariffs, have become formidable competitors. 

Further Political Reforms. — In 1867 the right to vote 
was still further extended, so that well-to-do working 
men could join in the elections. Since 1884 only a 
trifling property qualification has been left, which still 
distinguishes the franchise from the universal suffrage 
practised in other democratic countries. 

The Irish Difficulty. — The Irish people have never been 
satisfied with the English government. They are of Celtic 
race, devoted to the Catholic religion, and impatient of 
government control. During the French wars the extreme 
Irish party asked for the aid of French troops for the plan of 
setting up an Independent Irish republic. William Pitt tried 
to stop the trouble by merging the Irish with the English 
Parliament, thus uniting the two governments (1800). But 
the discontent was not ended. 

The Irish question again became acute after 1845. In 
that and the following years the people suffered from terrible 
famine, due to excessive rains. Before 1850 the population 
was reduced by 2,000,000, through emigration and starva- 
tion. For this the government was blamed, and the Irish 
hatred against English rule grew still intenser. 

The so-called ' Fenians ' tried to win Irish independence 
by force, but were easily put down. Since 1870 a league 
of Irish patriots has demanded ' Home Rulel i.e. a separate 

^ R. Mackenzie, The Nineteenth Cefttury. 



428 MODERN HISTORY 

Irish Parliament. It long remained one of the chief questions 
before Parliament, and was supported in 1893 by Gladstone, 
who was then Prime Minister. The Home Rule movement 
failed chiefly through a quarrel among the Irish politicians. 

In 1903 the government passed a generous law aiming 
at the improvement of social conditions in Ireland. The 
details of this ' Irish Land Bill ' are too complicated for 
brief explanation. It is sufficient to state that until the 
present time (1907) the endeavors of the British govern- 
ment to restore social peace in Ireland have not wholly 
succeeded. Ireland still is a troublesome partner in the 
' United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.' 

The English in India. — It will be remembered that 
Napoleon aimed at the overthrow of English power 
in India. When Wellesley Q.2Si\t. to India as governor- 
general for the East India Company in 1798, he found 
that French officers were drilling the armies of native 
princes. He at once got rid of the danger by depos- 
ing princes who favored France. The confederacy 
of the Mahratta chiefs extended across the north of 
the Dekkan and into the Ganges valley. It was 
helped by a clever Frenchman, who had organized 
a large force on European lines. The Mahrattas 
were repeatedly defeated by the governor's brother, 
General Wellesley, later known by his title Duke of 
Wellinoton as the victor of Waterloo. The over- 
throw of the Mahrattas left the East India Company 
masters of nearly all Southern India. 

Conquest of Burma (1824-18 26). — When Clive started 
the East India Company on its career of conquest 
in Bengal (1753) a new native empire was about to 
be built up in Burma. " For nearly seventy years 
the British from the Ganges, and the Burmese from 



THE BRITISH EMPIRE 429 

the Irawadi, pushed their conquests, whether by arms 
or negotiation, till they met. Their inevitable rivalry 
soon led to hostilities."^ The English either had 
to take the offensive or else allow their Indian rule 
to be questioned. They sent an expedition up the 
Irawadi valley. It was aided by a flotilla of steam- 
boats — the first steam vessels ever used for war. 
After two years of arduous campaigning the Burmese 
were forced to submit. 

The Beginning of Benevolent Administration. — A 
splendid example of the English love of justice and 
good order was set by governor Lord William 
Bentinck (1828-1835). His administration is best 
characterized by the inscription on his statue in 
Calcutta, written by the historian Macaulay : " He 
abolished cruel rites ; he effaced humiliating distinc- 
tions ; he gave liberty to the expression of public 
opinion ; his constant study it was to elevate the 
intellectual and moral character of the nations com- 
mitted to his charge." His best remembered reform 
was the abolition of suttee, or widow burning. It 
had been a general custom that the widow of a 
deceased Hindu should burn herself alive. Bentinck's 
care for the welfare of his Indian subjects is an 
honored tradition which has been followed by most 
of his successors. 

The First Afghan War and the Massacre of Kabul 
(1838- 1 842). — About this time the English began to 
entertain fears of Russian influence in Afghanistan. 
The governor, acting on mistaken information, decided 
to place a friend of England on the Afghan throne. 

^ C. Knight, Popular History of England. 



430 MODERN HISTORY 

An army of about 15,000 men marched to Kabul, 
the capital, and had little difficulty in carrying out its 
purpose. But at the beginning of winter a sudden 
revolt forced the British to retreat. On the march 
through the wild mountain gorges they were mas- 
sacred almost to the last man. Next summer another 
army took Kabul again, and restored the prestige of 
the British arms. 

Events and Conditions leading up to the Indian Mutiny. — 
Governor Lord Dalhousie (i 848-1 856) was impatient of all 
native practices and conditions which seemed improper to 
his English sense of right and wrong. He imitated Lord 
Bentinck's example of benevolent social ameliorations. If a 
native prince, in the governor's opinion, ruled badly, he was 
deposed. His state was annexed to the territories under 
British administration. 

The Indian people loved their old social and religious 
traditions. They were incensed that the foreigners pre- 
vented the observation of popular practices, such as widow 
burning. The patronage extended by the Company's 
officials to Christian missionaries was especially distasteful 
to them. Wild rumors were spread about the terrible 
consequences of laying railways and stretching telegraph 
wires across the country. The whole population got into 
such state of ferment that a general uprising could occur 
at any moment. 

The deposed native princes did their best to increase 
popular excitement, and entered into conspiracies for the 
recovery of their rights. 

The Indian Empire had been won with the aid of native 
troops officered by Englishmen. In 1856 there were in 
India 300,000 men, trained and armed in European fashion. 
Of these only about 43,000 were British. 

Immediate Cause of the Oufbreak. — A new rifle was intro- 
duced at the beginning of 1857 into the Bengal army. 



THE BRITISH EMPIRE 431 

" As greased cartridges were necessary for its effective use, 
these were issued to the troops along with the weapon. 
A report immediately started up and flew abroad that the 
grease employed in the preparation of these cartridges 
consisted of a preparation of the fat of cows and pigs — 
the first of these animals being the object of Hindu adora- 
tion, and the last of Mohammedan abhorrence," ^ Efforts to 
disprove the rumor and to pacify the sepoys (native soldiers) 
were unavailing. The call of rebellion spread like wildfire 
over all the provinces. 

The Indian Mutiny (185 7- 1858). — This revolt for a 
while seemed to end British rule in India, Terrible 
massacres of English residents, including women and 
children, were only part of the design of exterminating 
the foreigners. In the crisis the English kept wonder- 
fully cool. With an army of only 7000 men they 
stormed the walled city of Delhi, which was defended 
by 100,000 soldiers trained and armed in foreign 
fashion. At Lttcknow a small British garrison held 
its own aofainst overwhelming forces for three months, 
until relief came. After another year the last traces 
of rebellion were stamped out. 

The Crown assumes the Government of India (1858). — 
As a result of the mutiny. Parliament put an end to 
the authority of the East India Company. A Secre- 
tary of State for India was added to the Cabinet 
in London. Associated with him was an Indian 
Council, made up of persons having experience in 
Indian affairs. The Governor-General was appointed 
directly by the British government. In 1877 Queen 
Victoria was proclaimed Empress of India. 

* The HistoriarHs History, vol, xxii. p. 168. (Cited from C. Mac- 
Farlane and Thomson, The Comprehensive History of E7igland.) 



432 MODERN HISTORY 

The Afghan War (i 878-1 880).— When the English 
government stopped the Russian advance on Con- 
stantinople (1878), Russia made a counter-move by 
sending an envoy to the Ameer of Afghanistan. At 
once the viceroy of India also sent an envoy ; but the 
Ameer had him turned back at the frontier. Before 
British interests could be properly safeguarded, three 
expeditions had to march into Afghanistan, Besides 
the English and Russian phases, the problem was 
complicated by struggles for the succession to the 
throne at Kabul, The victory remained with an 
Ameer who was friendly to Britain. 

Anglo-Russian Rivalry in Tibet, — In 1901 a Tibetan 
embassy was received by the Czar in St. Petersburg. 
The Russian government is said to have promised its 
protection to the Church of the Dalai Lama. In any case, 
the Tibetans thereafter were negligent in the observation of 
their commercial treaty with India. At the beginning of 
the Russo-Japanese war the Indian government sent an 
armed expedition to Lassa, the capital and residence of the 
Dalai Lama. The latter fled to the north, but a treaty was 
drawn up with his representatives and the Amban (Chinese 
resident). By this treaty Tibet remains closed to all Powers 
except England. The Chinese suzerainty over Tibet was 
strengthened by the English expedition. 

Peace Works in India. — Since the mutiny the govern- 
ment has been careful to avoid offending the pre- 
judices of the population. In many instances, notably 
in sanitary work for the prevention of epidemics, the 
good intentions of English officials are frustrated by 
native habits and superstitions. 

Great progress has been made in the material 
development of the country. Railways, roads, canals, 




G.H. 



434 MODERN HISTORY 

and irrigation works have all increased the wealth of 
India. Famines, those scourges imposed by the unre- 
liable climate and the dense population, are lessened 
by the improved means of communication,- Justice is 
more equitable and property more secure under the 
protection of reformed law courts. Education has 
made some advance, though the great mass of India's 
millions still remains untouched by it. 

Altogether, India is more prosperous under English 
rule than she has ever been during her long previous 
history. 

Indian National Aspirations. — The intellectual awakening 
of India has produced, anfiong the educated classes at least, 
a new national feeling This showed itself first in the 
demand for admission to government offices, on an equality 
with the English employees. The Indian civil service, in 
all but the highest branches, has been opened to natives. 

In recent times the demand for a national Indian Parlia- 
ment is frequently heard. The first step towards parlia- 
mentary rule was taken in 1885 by the establishment of 
the Indian National Congi'ess, It meets annually for a few 
days in one of the large cities, and discusses various public 
problems. It has no executive or law-making power ; but 
its discussions are of value to the government. 

Quite lately (1906- 1907) a radical national party 
created some uneasiness by advising the expulsion of all 
foreigners and the foundation of an independent Indian 
nation. Fortunately the agitators represented only a small 
fraction of the lettered classes. The withdrawal of foreign 
guidance would — in the opinion of all unbiassed students 
of the question — be disastrous for India. India is not a 
single nation, but consists of many discordant elements, 
among which harmony is maintained only by the restrain- 
ing English overlordship. The Hindus and Mohammedans, 
for example, have given no proof that they could strive 



THE BRITISH EMPIRE 435 

together for a common national aim. On the contrary, their 
rivalry would bring disunion or civil war. 

Settlement of Australia. — Australia was at first used 
as a convict colony. When it became known that 
the Australian pastures were ideal for sheep-raising, 
pood settlers came from Ireland and Scotland. These 
objected to further shipments of criminals. In 1851 
the discovery of rich gold fields brought a sudden 
rush of colonists. Soon after that the sendino- of 
English convicts was forbidden. By the year i860 
there were seven separate Australian colonies, 
including Tasmania and New Zealand. Except the 
last, they all joined into the ' Commonwealth of 
Aiisti'-alia' in 190 1. At the head of the Common- 
wealth stands a governor-general, who is appointed 
by the English government. The federal Parliament 
consists of two houses. Laws passed by them must 
be sanctioned by the governor-general. In practice 
he is not likely to impede legislation. The Australian 
federation is practically a self-governing nation, whose 
dependence on the mother country is not based on 
force, but on loyalty. 

England in the Far East. — The settlement of 
Singapore was established in 18 19. Other colonies 
having the nature of trading posts were gradually 
established along the Malay Peninsula. They are 
now collectively called the Straits Settlements, with 
the capital Singapore. 

The ' Opium War ' with China (see Chapter 
XXXVII.) led to the cession of Hong-kong (1842). In 
1898 CJiina agreed to a ninety-nine years' lease of 
the opposite peninsula of Kowloon. The city of 



436 MODERN HISTORY 

Victoria, generally called Hong-kong, has grown into 
one of the most important distributing ports in the 
East. It is a free-port, i.e. no duties are levied on 
goods passing through. 

The Anglo- Japanese Alliance (1902). — In course of 
the nineteenth century China became an increasing- 
consumer of British manufactures. With the pro- 
gressive development of the country the demand far 
foreign goods was bound to increase rapidly. In 
order to preserve the Chinese trade for her manu- 
facturers and merchants, Great Britain insisted on the 
'Open Door' in China. This means that imports from 
all countries are to be admitted on the same terms. 

The open-door policy was endangered by the 
advance of Russia in Manchuria. England and 
Japan were both anxious to prevent any further 
progress of Russia, and joined in a defensive alliance. 
Each country agreed to help the other in case it 
should be attacked by more than one power. The 
alliance soon proved to be of historic importance. It 
confined the war between Russia and Japan to these 
two nations, and gave Japan full security from any 
other possible opponent, while her whole energy was 
devoted to the Manchurian campaign. 

Renewal of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance (1905). — The 
Anglo-Japanese alliance was prolonged and strengthened 
in 1905. Not only the British Empire and Japan, but 
also China and, in a manner, Russia will always regard this 
treaty as a decisive epoch in their histories. The preamble 
of the treaty states that its objects are {a) the consolidation 
and maintenance of the general peace in the regions of 
Eastern Asia and of India ; {U) the preservation of the 
common interests of all powers in China by ensuring the 



THE BRITISH EMPIRE 437 

independence and integrity of the Chinese Empire and 
the ' open door ' ; and (c) the maintenance of the territorial 
rights of England and Japan in India and the Far East 
respectively. The contracting powers agree to take common 
action if either party ' by reason of unprovoked attack or 
aggressive action wherever arising on the part of any other 
Power or Powers ' should be involved in war, in defence of 
the rights or interests above mentioned. 

The far-reaching consequences of this treaty belong to 
present and future politics rather than to history, and are 
beyond the scope of this book. Its provisions should be 
well remembered by every student who wishes to under- 
stand his own times. 

Modem Persia. — We have watched the mighty struggle 
between England and Russia along the line reaching from 
Constantinople through Asia to the shore of the Pacific. 
One section of this line, the Persian one, remains to be 
considered. 

Modern Persian history has been mainly determined by 
the conflict of Russian and English interests. During the 
period of 1797 to 1828 Persia lost considerable territories 
to Russia, and had to allow Russian warships to patrol 
the Caspian Sea. Dynastic quarrels were utilized by the 
English and the Russian envoys to further the ends of 
their respective governments. In this diplomatic contest 
the Russians got the victory. They incited two Persian 
attacks on Afghanistan, which led in turn to the first 
Afghan war of the English. For some years the whole 
administration was ' Russianized.' The Shah twice took 
the important city of Herat in Afghanistan, but each time 
he was forced by English attacks in the Persian Gulf to 
restore his conquest (18 5 2-1 857). England won further ad- 
vantages; but in 1900 Russia gave a large loan, which made 
Persia financially dependent on the northern Power. Since 
then the two rival Powers have by treaty guaranteed the inde- 
pendence and integrity of Persia. In 1906 the Shah yielded 
to the modern spirit of his subjects by granting a constitution. 



438 



MODERN HISTORY 



The Anglo-Russian Convention (1907). — In 1907 the 
English and Russian governments came to an agree- 
ment on various points touching their interests in 
Asia, This agreement is said to have put an end for 
many years to come to their long and bitter rivalry. 

England in Egypt. — The completion of the Suez 
Canal gave its builders an immediate interest in Egypt, 
because unrest in that country might have endangered 

free navigation. France 
and England jointly un- 
dertook an oversight of 
the Egyptian govern- 
ment. During a revolt 
against the foreign en- 
croachments (1882) 
France kept aloof and 
allowed England alone 
to restore order. Since 
then English troops 
have remained in the 
country, and the admini- 
stration has been guided 
by British officials. 
Lord Cro-}ne7' has 
Lord Cromer. gained fame by his won- 

derful reorganization of the Egyptian government. 
The Nile dam at Assuan will always remain a monu- 
ment of British efficiency. It stores up the surplus 
waters of the Nile in flood time and enables the 
fellahs (Egyptian peasants) to cultivate land on which 
no crops had ever been raised before. English control 
has benefited Egypt in many ways. Nevertheless 




THE BRITISH EMPIRE 439 

many Egyptians dislike it, being influenced by that 
common racial feeling, which prefers native oppression 
to foreign justice. 

British South Africa. — The Cape Colony was occupied 
by England during the French revolutionary wars, 
when Holland, its former owner, had been forced 
into alliance with France. The original settlers were 
Dutch farmers called Boers. They did not care to 
live under English rule, and founded two new states 
further inland, the Orange Free State and the Trans- 
vaal Republic. 

In 1885 rich gold fields were discovered in the 
Transvaal. Large numbers of immigrants flocked to 
the mines, and soon the aliens were six times as 
numerous as the orioinal Boer settlers. The Boers 
took no interest in the new industry except to hamper 
it by heavy taxation. 

The 'Uitlanders' (Dutch for aliens) tried to 
become citizens of the Transvaal, but the Boers 
obstinately refused to let them have any share in 
the government. As most of the Uitlanders were 
English, they finally asked for aid from the British 
o-overnment. 

The Boer War (1899-1900). — Negotiations brought 
no results, and England declared war. The Boers 
were all natural soldiers. They had stored up muni- 
tions of war, while the English began the campaign 
badly prepared. The English generals at first suffered 
serious reverses. But new armies were sent from 
home, and the Boers were forced to submit by 
methodical campaigns, in which the whole country 
was swept by soldiers. The Orange Free State and 



440 MODERN HISTORY 

* 

the Transvaal were both annexed by England. The 
Boers were most generously recompensed for their 
losses. Most of them became citizens of British 
South Africa. 

The Dominion of Canada. — The history of Canada is 
mostly one of peaceful internal progress. The various 
provinces united into the dominion of Canada in 1867. 
The dominion is self-governing, and has its own 
parliament, which meets at Ottawa. The governor- 
general is appointed by the Crown. Canada has 
great agricultural resources, which are being developed 
by steady immigration along new railway lines. 

The Present British Government is a limited monarchy, 
which in practice approaches closely to a democracy. The 
crown is hereditary through male or female descent ; the 
monarch must be a Protestant. Since 1707 the king (or 
queen) has not exercised his veto power, and all other 
powers are exercised only under ministerial advice. The 
ministers are jointly called the Cabinet. The Cabinet, by 
its function of advisory council to the king, actually has 
the executive power. It is also called the Ministry, or 
the Government. 

Dependence of the Cabinet on the Majority. — The Prime 
Minister is always the leader of the majority party in the 
House of Commons, and the other members of the ministry 
are selected by him from among the ablest adherents of 
his party. The Cabinet meets under the presidency of the 
Prime Minister, and frames measures for presentation to 
Parliament. If such a ' government bill ' is defeated, i.e. if 
it fails to secure a majority of votes, the ministry must 
resign. It may happen, however, that the ministers have 
reason to believe their policy to be approved by the majority 
of the nation outside of Parliament. In that case they 
can ask the king to dissolve Parliament, and order a new 
election, in the hope of securing the necessary majority 



THE BRITISH EMPIRE 441 

among the newly elected members. In brief, the Cabinet 
always is supposed to express the will of the greater part 
of the people. 

The House of Lords is restricted in its legislative power. 
It can neither originate nor amend a money bill. Experi- 
ence has also shown that the Lords could not prevent the 
passage of a bill which the Commons and the people insist 
on passing. 

Tlie House of Commons has the greatest share of sovereign 
power. A change in its opinions makes and unmakes the 
ministers who guide the fortunes of the Empire. It 
contains six hundred and seventy members elected by 
secret ballot for seven years. Any citizen is eligible ; but 
he gets no pay for his services. 

Plans of Imperial Federation. — It used to be thought that 
the big self-governing colonies, notably Cariada and Australia, 
would gradually become more independent, and that they 
might by peaceful development finally attain complete 
autonomy. 

In the last quarter of the nineteenth century a larger 
imperial conception was advocated. In 1884 the /w/m^/ 
Federation League was founded. Its aim was to work for 
the realization of a ' Greater Britain,' a close political union 
of the mother country and the colonies. 

Since 1893 several leagues have been established, working 
partly for a common scheme of imperial defence, and partly 
for a customs union within the empire. In 1903 the 
veteran statesman Joseph Chamberlain by his energetic 
agitation roused the interest of all England in this question. 
He advised that England should levy duties on food stuffs 
from foreign countries, while admitting them free from 
the colonies. The colonies, in turn, should allow English 
manufactures to come in with small duties or none at all, 
while raising high duties against foreign goods. Thus the 
empire would be bound together by common commercial 
interests, somewhat as the German Customs Union was 
bound together after 1830. If the many difficulties in the 



442 MODERN HISTORY 

way of this plan can be overcome, the future Greater Britain 
will be the grandest political creation in history. 

The Modern Colonial Empire of France. — Though the 
French succumbed in the struggle with England for 
colonial empire, they never forgot their ambitions. 
About the middle of the seventeenth century they 
occupied some parts of the western coast of Africa. 
During the middle of the nineteenth century they 
entered on the conquest of Alge^da, and in 1881 Timis 
was put under French protectorate. The greater part 
of Western Africa between the Mediterranean, and the 
Congo River is now occupied by France. A French 
protectorate was declared over the large island of 
Madagascar m 1889. 

To avenge the murder of some French missionaries, 
Saigon in the kingdom of Annam was seized in 1862. 
Annam was at that time under Chinese suzerainty. 
After the Franco-Prussian war the French continued 
to push their conquests in Annam and Tongking. 
There ensued a war with China over the protectorate 
of Tongking, which resulted in the treaty of 1885 
establishing French authority over that province. 
Tongking, Annam, Cambodia, and Cochin China were 
united under the administration of ' Indo- China,' with 
Saigon as capital. 

The colonial party in France also wished to annex the 
whole of Siam. But a convention with England in 1896 
assured the independence of the central portion of that 
country. In 1 902 Siam ceded some territory along the 
Mekong River. 

German Colonization. — When Germany had achieved 
her unity, and began to develop that remarkable 



THE BRITISH EMPIRE 443 

energy which would well fit her for a colonial career, 
nearly all available countries were already occupied. 
Her surplus population emigrated to North and South 
America, and was lost to the national flag. Her 
merchants and shippers made Germany's name well 
known throughout the Old and New World, but they 
could not, like their English predecessors, win new 
lands. Only in Africa large tracts of tropical countries, 
mostly unfit for white settlers, were still without a 
master. Of these Germany took all she could get 
without being embroiled with her neighbors. She 
gave the signal for the complete partition of Africa 
among various European powers. 

After the Chino-Japanese war (1895) it looked for 
a while as if China might be divided among the great 
Powers. Germany did not wish to be left behind, 
and seized the port of Kiaochau in Shantung, as 
punishment for the murder of some German mission- 
aries. China was obliged to grant a ninety-nine years' 
lease of the place, together with various privileges in 
Shantung province (1897). 

French and G-erman Rivalry in Morocco. — The conquest of 
Morocco would have rounded out the French African Empire 
with the most desirable part of West Africa. In return for 
the French recognition of British rights in Egypt, England 
had agreed to give France a free hand in Morocco. The 
ultimate annexation of the country seemed as good as 
settled. Suddenly, while Russia, the ally of France, was 
preoccupied with the Japanese in Manchuria and with 
revolution at home, the German Emperor promised his 
protection to the Sultan of Morocco. 

For some time a Franco-German war was daily imminent. 
The officers packed their trunks for the field. But the 



444 ' MODERN HISTORY 

horrors of war in Manchuria were too vividly before the 
governments. Every one wished for a peaceful settlement. 
An international conference met at Algeciras^ a little Spanish 
town near Gibraltar (1906). An agreement was reached, by 
which the open door is maintained in Morocco. The country 
keeps its independence. The police and the finances are 
under European influence. France's task of preserving order 
is difficult and delicate. It has already grown into a war 
against the fanatical tribesmen, who want to drive the 
foreigners away. 

The Colonies of the Lesser Powers. — Spain and Portugal still 
own some colonies in Africa. When the general partition of 
that continent was imminent, King Leopold of Belgium 
succeeded in erecting, with the consent of the Powers, the 
Congo Free State. This was a neutral and independent 
state, which remained open to the traders of all nations. 
Its bad administration caused some scandal, and led to its 
annexation by Belgium (1907). 

Italy settled on the Red Sea coast, and came into collision 
with the warlike Abessynians. The Italians were defeated, 
and had to acknowledge the independence of the Abessynian 
emperor. He is now the only independent native sovereign 
in Africa. 

The Dutch East India Colonies were first established in 
1602 by the Dutch East India Company. Aside from 
occasional revolts of the natives, their possession has not 
been seriously disputed. Their rich products, such as coffee, 
spices, tobacco, and rubber, make them more valuable than 
any other tropical colony outside of India. 



CHAPTER XXXVI 

THE AMERICAN COUNTRIES DURING THE 
NINETEENTH CENTURY 

I. THE UNITED STATES 

Washington's Administration ( 1 789- 1 797). — President 
Washington brilliantly solved the problem of putting the paper 
constitution (see close of Chap, xxvill.) into actual practice. 
In most departments of administration he was able to set 
precedents which have been observed until the present day. 

In his task he was helped by some able ministers. Thomas 
Jefferson, the secretary of state, and Alexander Hamilton, the 
secretary of the treasury, displayed notable organizing talent. 
Hamilton found the finances in a seemingly hopeless con- 
dition. In a series of reports, which are still admired as 
master-pieces of public finance, he showed the way to a 
sound national economy. 

Washington declined the Presidency for a third term, thus 
s-etting an example which was followed by all succeeding 
presidents. In his 'Farewell Address^ he said: "It is our 
true policy to steer clear of permanent alliances with any 
portion of the foreign world. . . ." And then : " Harmony 
and a liberal intercourse with all nations are recommended 
by policy, humanity, and interest." In this advice of the first 
president lies the key to the foreign policy of the United 
States until the present time. 

The Louisiana Purchase (1803). — During the presidency of 
Thomas Jefferson, Napoleon was waging war with England. 



446 MODERN HISTORY 

He had taken from Spain the great territory of Louisiana 
west of the Mississippi River. Knowing that he probably 
would not be able to hold the possession against the British 
navy, he preferred to sell it to the United States (1803). 
The price paid for a territory embracing about half of the 
present United States west of the Mississippi was fifteen 
million dollars. Most of it was then unbroken wilderness. 

War with England ( i 8 1 2- 1 8 1 4). — The Napoleonic wars were 
very profitable to American merchants and shipowners. But 
England, in her desire to enforce the blockade of European 
ports, took severe measures against neutral ships. In spite 
of American protests her cruisers stopped vessels on the 
high seas, searched their cargoes, and confiscated them if 
they seemed to be contraband of war. The British officers 
also often impressed ^ American sailors, claiming that they 
were deserters from the English navy. For several years 
the government tried to escape war. But popular indignation 
finally precipitated the conflict. 

The Americans were utterly unprepared. Their warships 
earned fame by gallant fights, in which they disabled 
English vessels of equal size. As a whole, however, the 
war was inglorious. An English force marched right up to 
the capital city of Washington, and set fire to it. At the 
close of the war the Americans proved that they only 
required proper military organization, to make fine soldiers. 
General Andrew Jackson repelled with 5000 men of militia 
an attack of 12,000 British regulars on New Orleans. 

The downfall of Napoleon in 1 8 1 4 removed the causes 
of the war. The treaty of peace gave no special gains to either 
side. But the American merchant marine was almost ruined. 

Slave States and Free States. — During the two administra- 
tions of James Monroe the question of slavery became an 
important political issue. 

Already in colonial times the social and economic 
conditions of the South were different from those of New 
England. The latter consisted largely of industrial and 

^ Impressed = made them serve in the British navy. 



448 MODERN HISTORY 

trading communities. In the South large plantations of 
tobacco, cotton, or sugar cane were worked by slaves. The 
difference between the two sections steadily grew. The 
free states were in favor of a protective tariff to stimulate 
their industries, while the purely agricultural states would 
have preferred free imports. 

The Missouri Compromise (1820). — Neither party wished 
the other one to gain in political weight. Whenever a 
newly formed state was admitted to the Union, the question 
always presented itself: Shall it be a slave state or a free 
state? Until 18 19, when Alabama (slave holding) was 
admitted as the twenty-second state, the balance had been 
evenly preserved. But the question of granting statehood 
to the slave-holding territory of Missouri caused intense 
excitement. It was finally admitted by a compromise : 
To balance the increase in slave states, the free state of 
Maine, north of Massachusetts, was also admitted. At the 
same time an act was passed forbidding for all times slavery 
north of thirty-six degrees and thirty minutes latitude. 

The Monroe Doctrine. — President Monroe was confronted 
with a dangerous question of foreign relations. Russia had 
settled on the North American continent, crossing from 
Siberia to Alaska} Russian influence threatened to extend 
south into United States territory. France and Spain just 
then contemplated forcible action against the newly formed 
South American republics. 

Monroe courageously stood for American rights. In 
the Message to Congress of 1823 he stated: "... the 
American continents . . . are henceforth not to be con- 
sidered as subjects for future colonization by any European 
power." And, referring to the South American republics : 
"... we could not view any interposition for the purpose 
of oppressing them or controlling in any other manner their 
destiny, by any European power, in any other light than as 
the manifestation of an unfriendly disposition toward the 
United States." 

^ In 1867 Alaska was sold by Russia to the United States. 



THE AMERICAN COUNTRIES 449 

Canning, the British Prime Minister, supported the 
American policy. (Compare Ch. xxxil., Spain.) 

Jackson and the Spoils System. — During the presidency of 
general Andrew Jackson (182 9- 1837) party passions had 
grown virulent. His adherents, strongest in the South, 
formed the democratic party, while the opponents were the 
republican party. The politicians who pushed Jackson's 
election, perfected the vicious 'spoils system.' They thought 
it quite proper that men who worked successful!}^ to get 
votes in favour of Jackson, should be rewarded with offices 
after his election. Within nine months after Jackson had 
entered the White House (the President's official residence 
at Washington), one thousand officials of the old administra- 
tion were replaced by his ' friends.' ' To the victors belong 
the spoils,' was the motto of the politicians. It has not 
been possible wholly to eradicate the spoils evil from the 
American government. 

Nullification in South Carolina (1832). — The people of 
South Carolina felt specially aggrieved by certain parts of 
the protective tariff. Under the leadership of Calhoun, an 
able politician, they asserted the right of the individual 
states to disavow or ' nullify ' distasteful laws passed by 
the United States. In other words, they claimed the 
right of setting single state rights above the national 
sovereignty. 

Jackson replied to the ' nullification ' in a proclamation 
which threatened the use of military force, if the South 
Carolinians should persist in their course. The nullifiers' 
object, he concluded, ' is disunion, and disunion by armed 
force is treason.' The leaders of the movement then gave 
up their design, and bloodshed was avoided. 

Beginning of the Abolitionist Movement. — About this time 
(1831) the demand for the total abolition of slavery was 
energetically put forward by a small party in the North. 
They were called the abolitionists. At first they were 
universally hated ; but their cause gradually won more 
supporters, and helped finally to bring on the civil war. 

G.H. 2 F 



450 MODERN HISTORY 

The Annexation of Texas; and tlie War with Mexico (1845- 
1848). — American citizens settled in Texas, the north- 
eastern part of the Mexican repubHc. They first declared 
Texas to be an independent state, and afterwards secured 
its adnaission to the Union (1845). Subsequently a quarrel 
about the boundaries of Texas produced a war between the 
United States and Mexico. The Mexicans, as the weaker 
party, were easily defeated. They gave up a large territory, 
including the present state of California. 

Secession of the Slave States (i 860-1 861). — The free states 
gained in population and wealth more rapidly than the slave 
states. This was in spite of the fact that the slave territory 
was larger, and that its natural resources were equal to those 
of the North. The whole cause for the backwardness of the 
South lay in slavery. But the slave holders were blind to 
the faults and dangers of an institution that had already 
been condemned by all intelligent men in Europe. They 
thought that giving up slavery would ruin them. 

Before i860 they had usually kept the upper hand in 
Congress. Now northern opinion was roused against slavery. 
The abolitionists were held in honor. The advocates of 
slavery would be outvoted, and the slaves might be set free. 
Rather than risk such a defeat, the slave states seceded from 
the Union, and formed themselves into the ' Confederate 
States of America! 

The North seemed inclined to let the Confederate States 
go their own way in peace. 

The Civil War (i 861-1 865).— The election as president of 
Abrahain Lincoln (i860) had precipitated the secession of 
the South. Lincoln was willing to let the slavery question 
take its own course. But he would not allow the Union 
to be endangered. When the authorities of Charleston, the 
capital of South Carolina, fired on a United States fort in 
their harbor, Lincoln issued a call for arms. 

In war time the Constitution grants the President almost 
dictatorial powers. These powers Lincoln used with admir- 
able firmness and wisdom. 






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452 MODERN HISTORY 

Victory at first inclined to the Southern armies. Several 
of their generals had gained experience during the Mexican 
war, while the Northern people were unused to military life. 
In material resources and population, however, the North 
was so vastly superior, that the result of the contest could 
be foreseen from the start. The many marches and counter- 
marches, sieges, and battles of this terrible war of sister 
states make a long history for themselves. They cannot 
be recounted here. 

Several military reputations were made. Generals Lee 
and Jackson of the Confederate army. Generals Grant and 
Sherman of the Union army, will always figure among the 
notable commanders in history. 

The Emancipation Proclamation ; Close of the War. — In 
1863 Lincoln issued a proclamation emancipating all slaves 
in the districts which were in rebellion against the United 
States, Two years later all slaves in the Union were made 
free by an amendment to the constitution. 

The war could only be ended by the complete exhaustion 
of the South. Liberal terms of peace were granted ; the 
Confederates merely had to lay down their arms and cease 
from further acts of hostility. 

The war cost the nation, including both sides, nearly a 
million lives. The total money cost, including destruction 
of property and pensions paid to soldiers after the war, is 
estimated at ten thousand million dollars. 

Material Progress. — After the Civil War the United States 
advanced in population and wealth by leaps and bounds. 
Since the foundation of the nation the number of inhabitants 
has^ on the average, doubled every twenty-five years. In 
1890 it was sixty-two millions. In the decade ending 
1890 nearly five million ivimigrants entered the country. 
Most of these were of Germanic or Celtic origin. 

The industrial history of the country was marked by 
the organization of immense business corporations called 
Trusts. The trusts often sought to get a monopoly of 
their trade, and built up a capital power greater than the 



THE AMERICAN COUNTRIES 453 

world had ever seen before. The steel trust, for example, 
was organized with a capital of five hundred million 
dollars. 

The Spanish- American War of 1898 has been described 
in modern Spanish history. For the United States the 
war opened a new era. It put her into the possession of 
over-sea colonies (Philippine Islands, Porto Rico), and placed 
her among those great Powers that have to make themselves 
felt in all questions of world politics. The year before the 
Sandwich Islands, which command the middle of the Pacific, 
were annexed. They are not regarded as colonies, but have 
been made into United States territory. 

The United States and the 'Open Door' in China. — After 
the Boxer troubles in China (1900) America was earnestly 
concerned in preserving the integrit)^ of that country. It 
was largely due to her diplomacy that the open-door policy 
in China was accepted by all the Powders. 



II. MEXICO ; CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA 

Mexico was established as an independent republic in 
1823. For the next fifty years there was a chronic state 
of anarchy and civil war, the power commonly being in 
the hands of a dictator. Non-payment of foreign debts 
involved the country in trouble with Europe. Louis 
Napoleon used the opportunity for the conquest of the 
country. French troops seated the Austrian archduke 
Maximilian on the throne of the reorganized Empire of 
Mexico (1863). The enterprise was a political blunder. 
After the Civil War the United States government reminded 
Napoleon of the Monroe doctrine. He was obliged to 
recall his troops, and the ex-emperor Maximilian was shot 
by the enraged Mexicans. Since then Mexico has remained 
a republic. An able president, Diaz, made an end of 
revolutions and started the country on an era of prosperity. 

The history of the Central and South American States, 
since their liberation from Spain and Portugal, has been 



454 MODERN HISTORY 

a series of revolutions. Most of the states set up republican 
governments, in several cases innitating closely the consti- 
tution of the United States. Events generally proved that 
the South American peoples were not fitted by temperament 
and education for advanced forms of popular government. 
Revolutions followed one another with disastrous frequency, 
and dictatorships were often established. In Paraguay an 
unusual sort of despotism was set up by a certain Dr. 
Francia, who compared himself to Caesar, and was sole ruler 
for twenty-six years (i 8 14-1840). Since 1901 the internal 
troubles of Venezuela have assumed international importance, 
because the President, Cipriano de Castro, a virtual dictator, 
refused to pay various sums due to foreigners. Germany 
and Great Britain enforced the payment of their claims by 
blockading the Venezuelan ports with warships. The wider 
significance of this episode lay in the fact that Germany, 
in order to avoid a misunderstanding with the United States, 
officially recognized the Monroe Doctrine (compare p. 448). 
Fears of German colonial ambition had been entertained in 
Brazil, the southern part of which contains a large and 
wealthy German population. 

The progress of education and the restraining influence 
of other Powers have lately improved the political conditions 
in Central and South America. The people are beginning 
to learn the right use of political liberty. The improvement 
is most notable in the Argentine Republic, Chile, and Brazil, 
the states which have the largest trade and the greatest 
proportion of purely European inhabitants. 



CHAPTER XXXVII 
THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE FAR EAST 
INTRODUCTION ; GENERAL VIEW OF THE SUBJECT 

Early Attitude of Japan and China towards Western Ideas. — 
China and Japan continued to go their isolated course until 
the middle of the nineteenth century. They would still 
be their unchanged, old selves, if the restless energy of the 
Western peoples had not brought a sudden flood of new 
dangers and new benefits. The dangers, at first despised, 
soon necessitated a complete change of public policy, as 
the only means of preserving national independence. 

In Japan a few far-seeing statesmen recognized at once 
that the benefits were greater than the danger. They 
foresaw that a more vigorous national life, new power, and 
new wealth would spring from a prompt adoption of 
Western methods and ideas. Their counsels prevailed. 
Japan has begun to reap the harvest 

The Chinese statesmen showed more pride and less 
wisdom. They continued to despise the foreign barbarians, 
instead of trying to find out the causes of Western superio- 
rity. Having always been the intellectual mistress of her 
own world, China could not realize that she was confronted 
with a new order of intellect from a hitherto unknown 
world. Her government preserved an attitude of haughty 
seclusion. But the haughtiness of the state did not conceal 
its weakness to foreign eyes. 

The Danger of China. — Soon China was threatened by 



456 MODERN HISTORY 

the danger which has always befallen a weaker state easily 
accessible to stronger states ; she ran imminent risk of 
falling under foreign dominion. Ports were seized, former 
Chinese dependencies were annexed, and ' spheres of influ- 
ence ' were marked out on the map. 

Causes for the Preservation of China's Independence. — Two 
causes combined to prevent the break-up of China. First, 
and foremost, the inability of the foreign governments to 
agree on a policy of division. Only a European war could 
have settled that question. Secondly, the recognition that 
the Chinese race was strong, and that only their public 
institutions were temporarily weak. Their numbers, their 
intelligence, their industry, their solidarity, and their strong 
racial individuality all combined to show that they would 
always remain masters of their own soil. Foreigners might for 
a while be a ruling caste; they might, by taxation or otherwise, 
exploit the natives; but no foreign rulers could ever make out 
of China anything else than the land of the Chinese. 

Historical Importance of Far-Eastern Events. — The modern 
transformation of Japan and China is at least as significant 
as any other event or period in the world's history. During 
the four hundred years after the discovery of America the 
European peoples have victoriously overrun all of the 
New and much of the Old World. Everywhere they met 
inferiors, or, in the case of India, people who were their 
equals in the realms of thought, but also weaker in the arts 
of government and war. What, after so much success, was 
more natural than that the white men should consider 
themselves the predestined lords of the globe ? 

At the close of the nineteenth century the ability of the 
Japanese began to be recognized and generously applauded. 
But the applause was still that of superior masters for their 
good pupils. Ten years later, the Japanese had proved 
their mastery of the new instruments of might. They have 
overthrown the Western prejudice of the natural superiority 
of the white race. They have established a new balance of 
power among the great nations of the world. 



THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE FAR EAST 457 

With the opening of the Far East, history has become 
truly universal. Every nation of the globe is now tied to 
the others by ties of intellectual and commercial intercourse, 
and of political interest. A war in Manchuria affects the 
balance of power in Europe. A financial crisis in New 
York is felt by the merchants in Shanghai as well as in 
Berlin. In short, the destiny of every country is now, more 
than ever before, largely shaped by the actions of the rest 
of the world. 



I. JAPAN 1 

The Growth of Feudalism in Old Japan. — The sudden 
Japanese revolution after 1850 v^as prepared by internal 
changes, w^hich must first be briefly explained. For 
this purpose we. must go back to the beginning of 
the Middle Ages in Japan. 

The Mikados theoretically always remained the sole 
and absolute sovereigns of Nippon. In practice the 
administration after the seventh century began to fall 
into the hands of the prime ministers. In 794 the 
emperor Kuammu was induced to establish his capital 
at Kioto, which remained the imperial residence until 
1868. The ministers surrounded the person of the 
Mikado with much pomp and ceremony. He was 
cut off from contact with the common world, until the 
people thought of him as a kind of human divinity 
residing: at Kioto. 

^The principal authority followed is W. E. Grififis, The Mikado's 
Empire, from which work several quotations are taken. The best 
single book for the student who wishes to get a closer understanding 
of Japan's modern development, is Japan by the Japanese. A Survey 
by its Highest Authorities. Edited by Alfred Stead. London, 1904. 
Some of Japan's greatest statesmen and teachers have contributed the 
articles in this book. 



45 8 MODERN HISTORY 

Meanwhile the ministers made their offices heredi- 
tary in their families. The central government was 
weakened, and the governors of the provinces steadily 
grew in power. Thus a feudal monarchy was 
evolved. The Daimios or princes ruling over the 
provinces stood in a similar relation to their suzerain, 
the Mikado, as the great vassals of France or England 
during the Middle Ages stood to their royal overlords. 
The vassal princes often waged war against each other, 
and even against the emperor. 

Formation of the Duarchy.^ — Most notable was the 
struggle bet\Aeen the Taira clan, which long enjoyed 
a monopoly of power, and the Minanioto clan. The 
former lost all their high offices, and were finally 
destroyed in a terrible naval battle in the strait of 
Shimonoseki. In 1192 Yoritonio, the head of the 
Minamotos, was appointed by the Mikado as Sei-i Tai 
Shogun (Barbarian-conquering general). " Henceforth 
the term Shogiin came to have a new significance. 
Anciently all generals were called shoguns, but, with 
a new emphasis added to the name, the shogun 
acquired more and more power, until foreigners sup- 
posed him to be a sovereign. Yet this subordinate 
from first to last — from 1 192 until 1868 — was a general 
only, and a military vassal of the emperor. Though 
he governed the country with a strong military hand, 
he did it as a vassal, in the name and for the sake 
of the Mikado at Kioto." 

Since there were two rulers, the rightful but helpless 
emperor at Kioto, and the usurping, powerful shogun, 
the period of the shogunate is often called a duarchy 
(duo being Latin for ' two '). 



THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE FAR EAST 459 

The Perfection of the Shogunate (1603). — The Mina- 
moto shoguns had to give way to other families, and 
civil war several times devastated Japan. After such 
a troublous period at the close of the sixteenth century, 
order was restored by lyeyasu of the Tokugawa family, 
which also belonged to the famous Minamoto clan, 
lyeyasu obliged the Mikado to make him shogun in 
1603. He established his own capital at Yedo, the 
present Tokio, while the Mikado's court continued 
to reside at Kioto. By marriage alliances with great 
Daimios, and by bestowing important fiefs on his 
own sons, lyeyasu made the Tokugawa family supreme 
in Japan. He and his able grandson perfected a 
system of feudal government under which Japan 
enjoyed peace and prosperity for over two centuries- 

Strict Seclusion of Japan. — A curious feature of the 
Tokugawa shogunate was the law forbidding Japanese 
subjects on pain of death to quit their country. 
Formerly Japan had entertained commercial relations 
with all the maritime countries of Eastern Asia. Now 
all foreigners who wished to trade were consistently 
repelled. Only the Dutch were allowed to maintain 
one little factory at Deshima near Nagasaki. 

Suppression of Christianity. — The Portuguese had first come 
to Japan in the middle of the sixteenth century. The 
famous Jesuit Francis Xavier preached Christianity with 
wonderful success. The new faith spread rapidly, embracing 
also noble families. The Tokugawa shoguns believed the 
new doctrine to be dangerous to the government. The 
decree of banishment against all foreigners, save the Dutch 
and the Chinese, was primarily aimed at the Christian 
missionaries. When the native converts refused to drop 
their faith, the severest persecutions were instituted. Cruci- 



46o MODERN HISTORY 

fixion, burning, or burying alive, and still other tortures, 
were employed against the ' corrupt sect.' By the close of 
the seventeenth century Christianity was extirpated. 
- Japanese Society under tlie Tokugawa Shogunate. — The popu- 
lation was divided into distinct classes, which were, however, 
not so sharply separated as the Indian castes. 

(i) The Daimios, who fell into subclasses according to 
the extent of their landed property. 

(2) The Samurai, also with subclasses. They were 
officers, officials, and soldiers. 

(3) Priests, scholars, physicians, artists. 

(4) Farmers. (5) Artisans, fishermen, etc. (6) Traders. 
As a rule the son continued in the rank and occupation 

of his father. The merchants were badly off " They were 
considered so low in the social scale that they had no right 
in any way to oppose or to remonstrate with the samurai." 

Opening of Japan to Foreign Intercourse (1854). — In 
1853 the American Commodore Perry sailed to 
Japan with a squadron of eight vessels. He bore 
a friendly letter from the President of the United 
States, in which a commercial treaty between the 
two nations was proposed. In the following year 
the shogun agreed to such a treaty, and Japan was 
thus at last drawn into relationship with the outer 
world. England, Russia, and the other states soon 
concluded similar arrangements. 

At the same time the law preventing Japanese 
from travelling abroad was repealed. Students at 
once flocked in large numbers to Europe and 
America, to become acquainted with foreign sciences 
and institutions. 

Causes for the Fall of the Shogunate. — The advent of the 
foreign traders and diplomats caused important changes in 
the internal affairs, and led to the fall of the shogunate. 



THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE FAR EAST 461 

The hostile Daimios, among whom that of Satsunia was 
strongest, claimed that the shogun had no right to conclude 
treaties with foreign states. They supported the sovereignty 
of the Mikado. 

In fact the loyalty to the Mikado never had been 
forgotten. As early as the close of the seventeenth century 
signs of discontent with the shogun's ascendency showed 
themselves among the scholar class. Prince Mito (1632- 
1700) wrote a history of Japan, which was widely studied. 
" The tendency of this book was to direct the minds of 
the people to the Mikado as to the true and only source of 
authority, and to point out the historical fact that the 
shogun was a military usurper." 

A second preparatory cause for the resumption of the 
Mikado's rights was the revival of the Shinto religion during 
the eighteenth and the first half of the nineteenth century. 
Shinto, which means ' the way of the gods,' had existed 
before the advent of Buddhism. It was a worship of 
ancestors and of natural elements, resembling the ancient 
Chinese nature worship. It insisted especially on the divine 
descent of the Mikado, and demanded obedience to the 
imperial government as the first moral duty. The political 
significance of Shinto is seen from the fact that after 1870 
it became the state religion. 

Conflict with the Foreigners. — The struggle between 
the shogunate and the legitimist party of the Mikado 
led to serious misunderstandino"s with the foreig^n 
Powers. When the Western diplomats first signed the 
treaties, they believed the shogun to be acting with 
full legal powers. Suddenly the Mikado's advisers 
disavowed the obligations entered into by the shogun, 
and announced the intention of the government to 
close the Japanese ports. At the same time the 
populace was aroused against the foreigners, and 
several of the latter were killed. Then a prominent 



462 MODERN HISTORY 

Daimio attacked some European ships. The allied 
governments decided to settle matters by force. In 
1864 a squadron of English, French, Dutch, and 
American men-of-war destroyed the fortifications of 
the strait of Shimonoseki. This argument proved 
effective. The treaties received the imperial sanction. 

The Revolution of 1868. — In 1867 Mutsuhito suc- 
ceeded to the throne as the one hundred and twenty- 
third Mikado of Japan's first and only dynasty. He 
was then fifteen years of age. His counsellors had a 
twofold policy. First to keep on good terms with the 
Western Powers, and to introduce Western reforms. 
Secondly, to establish the Mikado in his ancient rights 
as sole ruler of Japan. When they requested the 
shogun to give up his powers for the welfare of the 
state, he peacefully resigned. But his vassals per- 
suaded him to retract the resignation and take up 
arms. He was beaten by the Daimio of Satsuma 
and other imperialists (1868). Although the last 
shogun now retreated into a Buddhistic monastery, 
the civil war amonof the Daimios lasted to the close 
of the year. 

The Opening of the New Era. — One of the first acts 
of the restored imperial government was to request 
the Daimios to retire into private life. They obeyed 
at once, without striking a blow in defence of their 
feudal privileges. Most of them were mere pleasure- 
seekers, who had nothing of the martial valor of their 
ancestors. The feudal state was thus changed to an 
absolute monarchy. 

A series of reforms along Western lines was intro- 
duced during the following years A modern post 



THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE FAR EAST 463 

office, uniform currency, the Gregorian calendar, com- 
pulsory elementary education, are only a few of the 
measures that changed Japan into a modern state. 
Christian missionaries were admitted in 1876, and 
rapidly spread their doctrines. 

Establishment of Constitutional Government (1890). — 
In 1890 the Mikado voluntarily gave up a part of 
his imperial prerogatives to representatives of the 
people. A constitution was promulgated, which pro- 
vided for an Imperial Diet of two houses. The 
House of Peers is composed of members of the 
imperial family, of nobles, and of deputies who have 
been nominated by the emperor. The House of 
Representatives is composed of members elected by 
the people. 

The framers of the constitution fixed the minimum age 
for electors and candidates at twenty-five and the property 
quah'fication at a payment of direct taxes to the amount of 
1 5 yen annually. The result was that 460,000 persons 
were enfranchised out of a nation of 42 millions. 

By a reform bill passed later the property qualification 
for electors was reduced to payment of national taxes 
amounting to 10 yen annually, the number of franchise 
holders being thus raised to about 800,000. 

The Organization of a Modern Army and Navy was 

among the first cares of the new government. The 
army was trained first by French, and after 1885 
by German officers. Since the war of 1895 Japan 
has carried on her military work independently of 
foreign aid. The navy was built up and organized 
along British lines. 

The Korean Question. — ^The Japanese invaded Korea 
at the close of the sixteenth century. The Korean 



464 MODERN HISTORY 

court continued thereafter to sionalize its respect by 
sending presents on the accession of every shogun. 
After the fall of the Tokugawa shogunate, however, 
the Koreans declined to have any further relations 
with a country sunk so low as to embrace Western 
civilization. In 1875 they completed the rupture by 
firing on the boats of a Japanese war-vessel. 

Japan replied by sending a strong squadron of 
modern ships to Korea. The latter was quite over- 
awed, and agreed to a treaty of amity and commerce, 
opening three ports to foreign trade. The ' Hermit 
Kingdom ' was thus at last also opened to the outer 
world (1876). 

China and Korea. — China had long claimed suzerainty 
over Korea. But the Qrovernment at Peking- took no 
active steps to extend that effective protection which 
should have been coupled with suzerainty. Korea had 
to face unaided the Japanese naval forces. When she 
submitted, she was allowed to conclude with Japan a 
treaty of which the first article declared her 'an in- 
dependent state enjoying the same rights as Japan.' 
Subsequently other treaties were made with the United 
States, Great Britain, and other powers. In these 
treaties also Korea assumed the part of an independent 
state. 

Japanese predominance in Korea would have 
threatened the maritime route to the northern harbors 
of China, and hence to Peking. It would also have 
given easy access to Manchuria. For these reasons 
China revived^ her claim of overlordship, and sent a 
resident to Soul, the capital. Thereafter Chinese in- 
fluence was felt in all departments of the Korean 



THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE FAR EAST 465 

administration. The Japanese interests suffered under 
various measures instituted by the Chinese. The 
rivalry became steadily more bitter, until a war was 
unavoidable. 

The Chino-Japanese War (i 894-1 895). — In 1894 both 
powers kept small bodies of troops in Korea. Negotiations 
were constantly going on to settle the status of Korea, China 
having already termed it a ' tributary state.' Meanwhile 
Japan, unable to agree on a common course of action with 
China, began single handed to introduce various reforms in 
the decrepit Korean administration. China proceeded to 
stop this encroachment on her suzerain rights by sending 
troops to Korea. This was the signal for war. 

The whole campaign was a series of triumphs for 
Japan. China's ill-armed and undisciplined forces were 
no match against the new Japanese army. At sea the 
Chinese had the better ships. But the Japanese had 
better commanders. With a fleet of eleven ships 
they defeated the Chinese squadron of fourteen men- 
of-war near the mouth of the Yalu River, which forms 
the boundary between Korea and Manchuria. The 
only stubborn resistance offered throughout the war by 
the Chinese was made by the brave admiral Ting at 
Wei-hai-wei. When most of his fleet was destroyed, 
he committed suicide. 

The Treaty of Shimonoseki (1895). — The Japanese 
general-staff was contemplating a march on Peking, 
when the Chinese government sent Li Httng Chang, 
the viceroy of Chili province, to discuss terms of peace. 
On April 17, 1895, a treaty was signed by him and 
by Marquis Ito, the Japanese prime minister. We 
will let the principal passages of the treaty speak for 
themselves : 

G.H. 2 G 



466 MODERN HISTORY 

"Article II. China cedes to Japan in perpetuity 
and full sovereignty the following territories, together 
with all fortifications, arsenals, and public property 
thereon : 

^' (a) The southern portion of the province of Feng- 
tien. ..." (In brief, the Liaotung peninsula.) 

"(5) The Island of Formosa. . . . 

" (c) The Pescadores Group. . . ." 

"Article IV. China agrees to pay to Japan as a war 
indemity the sum of 200,000,000 Kuping Taels. . . ." 

It has been told above (Chap, xxxiv.) that Japan 
was obliged by Russia, France, and Germany to restore 
the Liaotung peninsula to China. ' 

Japanese History since 1895 has been sufficiently 
treated in connection with the affairs of Russia and 
Great Britain in the Far East. 

11. CHINA. 

The Jesuits in China. — During the seventeenth century it 
looked as though China were about to enter into permanent 
relations with the West. About forty years after the settle- 
ment of Macao by the Portuguese a Jesuit missionary named 
Matteo Ricci first began to preach Roman Catholic Christi- 
anity (1582). The last sovereigns of the Ming Dynasty (^\ 368- 
1644) tolerated the creed which their forerunners in the 
fourteenth century had banished from the country. When 
the Ming dynasty was broken up, and the present Manchu 
dynasty came into power, the missionaries in the North 
secured the favor of the new rulers. The Jesuit Schaal 
enjoyed the protection of Shun Chih, the first emperor in 
China of the Ta CJiing (Manchu) dynasty. Schaal reformed 
the calendar, and acted as tutor to the celebrated emperor 
K'ang Hsi. During the latter's reign the Jesuits made a 
complete survey of the empire, on which the present maps 



THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE FAR EAST 467 

are still based. It was, in fact, the scientific learning of the 
Jesuits that ensured them their success at Peking. 

Second Expulsion of the Christians. — The Jesuits were lax 
in their doctrinal teaching. They allowed the Chinese con- 
verts to maintain ancestor worship and other practices dis- 
agreeing with proper Christianity. When the Pope heard of 




I TO. 



this, he ordered ancestor worship to be forbidden. Unseemly 
quarrels ensued between the Jesuits and other missionaries. 

The Pope's orders amounted to an interference with 
Chinese sovereignty. This the emperor could not allow. 
The missionaries were restricted in their work, and under 
K'ang Hsi's successor they were ordered to leave the country. 
Only those required at Peking for scientific purposes were 
allowed to remain (1724). 

Early Trade Relations. — After the Portuguese, the 
Dutch tried to trade with Chinese ports. In 1624 



468 MODERN HISTORY 

they built a fort in Formosa (T'ai-wan) as a base for 
the China coast trade. The whole enterprise ended in 
disaster. 

The English East India Company had better success. 
Beginning in 1635, they started to bring European 
manufactures to Canton, Amoy, and Fuchow. Soon 
they discovered that the Chinese had a taste for Opium. 
The drug gradually became the principal staple of 
import. The Chinese gave silver in return, not having 
enough tea and silk and other exports to balance their 
consumption of the fatal narcotic. 

The trade conditions were never satisfactory to either 
party. The Chinese despised the barbarian merchants 
as men intent only on material gain. The East India 
Company's people often complained of the indignities 
heaped on them, but still continued the business for 
the sake of the big profits. 

China under the Early Emperors of the Ch'ing Dynasty. 
— The early emperors of the Ch'ing dynasty were able 
and energetic rulers. Their prowess in war and their 
eood administration is no less memorable than the 
encouragement given by them to arts and letters. 

K'ang Hsi (1662- [ 723) had first to prove his strength 
by putting down a formidable rebellion in the southern 
provinces. Then the pirates were driven from the sea, 
and Formosa, their stronghold, was annexed to the 
empire. Russian aggressions on the Amur were firmly 
repelled, and boundary disputes settled by the treaty 
of Nih-chu (in Russian Nerchinsk) in 1689. (Compare 
beginning of Chap, xxvi.) Mongolia was conquered 
after some brilliant campaigning, and Tibet was occupied 
by Chinese garrisons. 



THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE FAR EAST 469 

K'ang Hsi was also a distinguished scholar. The 
great dictionary named after him is still the standard 
work on the lang-uao-e. 

His grandson Ch'ien Lung (1736-1796) was a 
worthy descendant of the great emperor. He ex- 
tended the boundaries far into Central Asia, annexino- 
Hi and a great part of Turkestan in daring campaigns. 
A war with Burma was less fortunate, though the 
Burmese finally acknowledged themselves to be tribu- 
taries. The king of Cochin China rendered homage. 
The warlike Ghooi^kas of distant Nepal, having 
plundered the Tibetan monasteries, were pursued into 
their mountain fastnesses. They were glad to agree 
to a tribute of elephants and horses, to be sent to 
Peking every five years. Throughout this period 
Korea also stood under Chinese suzerainty. 

These military successes are detailed to show the 
last period of China's greatness. It was accompanied 
by internal peace and prosperity. Ch'ien Lung, like 
his grandfather, was a fine scholar and poet. 

The Last Period of Decline. — Soon after Ch'ien 
Lung's death began a series of disasters which, 
coupled with misrule, brought on a steady decline. 
The various rebellions and disorders need not be 
recounted here. Their significance for general history 
lies in this, that the government became weak and 
inefficient at the very time when strength and wisdom 
were indispensable to meet successfully the shock of 
foreign complications. 

The First English Embassy. — In 1792 the British 
government tried to come to a better understanding 
with the Chinese government by sending the Earl 



470 MODERN HISTORY 

of Macartney, with a large suit of able men, on a 
friendly embassy to Peking. The ambassador bore 
himself as the representative of a friendly sovereign, 
standing on an equality with the Emperor of China. 
He refused to prostrate himself, but bent only upon 
one knee, when approaching the Emperor, according 
to the custom of the English court. Ch'ien Lung 
received the ambassador courteously. But the mission 
accomplished nothing. The court officials were so far 
from grasping its significance, that they spoke of the 
English as tribute bearers. 

Causes of the First War with England. — The monopoly 
of the British East India Company stopped in 1834. 
A superintendent of British trade was now appointed 
to care for the interests of British subjects in Canton. 
He was directly representative of the English govern- 
ment, which expected him to be treated with all the 
respect due to a high officer of a friendly and equal 
power. 

The governor of Canton continued to regard the 
superintendent as a barbarian mercantile agent, not 
worthy of personal communication with an imperial 
official. It would lead too far to describe the 
innumerable misunderstandings between the English 
and Chinese at that time. Generally speaking, the 
Chinese officials brought matters to the danger point 
by their unchanging attitude of haughty disdain. 

The opium trade now exceeded in value all other imports 
combined. Opium smoking had grown into a harmful vice. 
The emperor forbade further importation of the drug. But 
he was powerless to enforce his own edict. Most of the 
coast population, including even officials, engaged in a vast 



THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE FAR EAST 471 

smuggling trade, which was encouraged by the foreign 
merchants. 

In 1839 commissioner Lin, acting under imperial orders, 
took strong measures. He demanded that all opium stored 
in Canton should be handed over to him, and had it publicly 
destroyed. The total value was about four million pounds 
sterling. This step, followed by further disputes, provoked 
the war. 

Moral Aspect of the War. — In so far as the war was 
waged to protect the opium trade, it was considered wrong 
by many people in England. American opinion was almost 
unanimous in its condemnation. And if the English people 
were to-day again confronted with the issue, it is doubtful 
whether a small minority could be found to defend it. At 
the time, however, a considerable part of the Indian revenue 
was drawn from the export of opium. 

The Opium War,^ and the Treaty of Nanking- (1840- 
1842). — The war at once revealed the inability of 
China to defend herself against disciplined European 
troops. At Canton, Amoy, Shanghai, the same tale of 
large forces driven to flight by small detachments was 
repeated. At Chinkiang, a walled city at the junction 
of the Imperial Canal and the Yangtse River, there 
was more resistance and therefore a sjreater slauohter 
of Chinese defenders. When the English threatened 
to storm Nanking, the government asked for peace. 

The Treaty of Nanking (1842) provided for the 
opening to British trade and residence of Canton, 
Shanghai, and three other ports. The island of 
Hong-kongwas ceded, and an indemnity of $21,000,000 

^ The term 'Opium War' is a misnomer still in general use, because 
the opium question is believed to have been the cause of the war. In 
fact, the sudden severity of commissioner Lin only brought old grievances 
to a head. Opium was not mentioned in the Treaty of Nanking. 



472 MODERN HISTORY 

had to be paid by China. Correspondence between 
the officials of the two nations was to be carried on 
upon terms of equality. 

Thus began the modern era of Chinese history, an 
era of profound significance for all countries throughout 
the world. The sleeping giant was rudely roused ; 
but another half century had to pass before he was 
fully awake. 

The Taiping Eehellion (1851-1864). — For thirteen years 
a terrible rebellion devastated the southern and central 
provinces. The Taiping, styled also the ' Long-haired 
rebels,' were led by a religious enthusiast, who had himself 
proclaimed as emperor. Their progress was marked by 
fearful slaughter and destruction. For a long time the 
imperial troops had difficulty in suppressing the revolt. It 
was finally subdued with the aid of foreign officers. The 
English colonel Gordon served the government in the most 
disinterested way, refusing any pecuniary reward. His noble 
conduct did much to lessen the distrust felt by the Chinese 
against the foreigners. 

Consular Jurisdiction. — The foreigners resident in China 
were not under Chinese law. Wherever the native legal 
practice has differed widely from that of the European 
states, it has been customary to place foreigners under the 
jurisdiction of their own consuls. This was done because 
Western governments would not allow their citizens to be 
subjected to the treatment usual in native courts, such as 
beating or torture. In Japan the consular jurisdiction over 
foreigners was given up as soon as the Japanese law had 
been reformed. Europeans at present (1907) living in 
China, Turkey, or Morocco, are under the jurisdiction of 
their own consuls. 

The principles of international law involved in this and 
other topics connected with foreign relations were long 
misunderstood by Chinese officials. It happened sometimes 



THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE FAR EAST 473 

that the Chinese view of right and wrong did not agree 
with Western international law. Quarrels easily arose from 
such cases. 

War with England and France (1856- 1860). — In 1856 
the governor of Canton arrested some Chinese sailors 
on a junk flying the British flag. According to inter- 
national law, a ship is under the jurisdiction of the 
country whose flag it flies. Therefore the Chinese 
authorities made a mistake in taking the men off that 
junk. They claimed, however — and were probably 
correct — that the native sailors had no rigrht to hoist 
the British flag. Altogether the case was very com- 
plicated. It created bad feelings, and finally gave rise 
to war. 

France also was concerned, and joined England with 
considerable forces. The allies advanced on Tientsin, 
and obliged the Chinese to conclude a treaty opening 
that port to foreign trade. The expenses of the expe- 
dition were to be paid by China. The most important 
agreement was that henceforth foreign ambassadors 
should have the right to reside in Peking. 

During the following year China tried to evade the 
obligations of the Tientsin treaty, and prepared for a 
renewal of war. England and France now determined 
to continue the war until all their demands would be 
fully granted. An expedition of 6000 English and 
5000 French troops advanced on Peking. Lord Elgin 
represented the British, and Baron Gros the French 
government. The Chinese army was unable to defend 
the capital. The emperor had to confirm new treaties 
at Peking, which added a larger indemnity to the 
articles of the Tientsin treaty (i860). 



474 MODERN HISTORY 

The Other Conflicts with the Western Powers have 
been related in connection with the modern history 
of Russia and the British Empire. By the year 1899 
China had lost her vassal states in the south and 
north. Of her immediate territory, the Amur country, 
Formosa, the Pescadores, Hong-kong and Kowloon, 
Kiaochow, the Liaotung peninsula, had all fallen into 
foreign hands. After the seizure of Port Arthur by 
the Russians, England took Wei-hai-wei on the 
opposite coast of Shantung, to counter-balance the 
Russian naval advantaofes in the Yellow Sea. 

The Boxer Rising (i 900-1 901). — The humiliations 
which China experienced from the foreign powers 
stirred the passions of the populace. Bands of patriots, 
styled Boxers, — in Chinese they were called * United 
harmony fists '—prepared for the expulsion of all 
foreigners from China. 

The missionaries and the native Christians were 
the worst sufferers from the popular rage. The 
Boxers turned against Tientsin and Peking, where 
they intended to storm the legations. The foreign 
settlement at Tientsin was for a while in imminent 
danger of being taken. Foreign troops hurried to the 
scene of conflict. Contingents from most European 
states, from the United States, and from Japan were 
sent over sea. 

The native city of Tientsin was taken by storm. 
An allied force marched to the relief of the legations 
in Peking, and saved them when they were nearly 
exhausted from a two months' siege. The imperial 
court fled to the interior. 

The Restoration of Order.— During the crisis the 



THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE FAR EAST 475 

Powers had acted in harmony. But as soon as 
the danger was passed, it grew evident that an under- 
standing between the various governments would be 
difficuh. Russia's policy aimed at the break-up of 
China. France would have liked an expansion of her 
territories into Southern China. The situation was 
saved by a separate treaty between England and 
Germany, in which they agreed to stand for the 
territorial integrity of China and the 'open door.' In 
Manchuria, however, Germany was willing to give a 
free hand to Russia. 

We have learned how the Russian designs in 
Manchuria later brought about the Anglo-Japanese 
alliance. 

The allied powers imposed the following conditions 
on China : Officials responsible for the Boxer rising 
were severely punished, and some of the leaders were 
executed. The Chinese government had to pledge 
itself to the payment of 450 million Taels of in- 
demnities. The forts between Peking and the sea 
were razed, while the legation quarter at the capital 
was fortified and garrisoned. 

The Reform Movement. — The national disasters re- 
counted here and in the preceding narrative of recent 
events in the Far East at last convinced leadino- 
men that China's salvation could come only through 
inner reform. The way had already been shown 
by two enlightened statesmen, Li Hung Chang and 
Chang Chih Tung. The latter had, like the former 
in Chili province, established schools, arsenals, and 
modern factories in his viceroyalty of the central 
provinces. 



476 MODERN HISTORY 

The progressive party was now favored by the 
ruling empress dowager. After Li Hung Chang's 
death another wise reformer, Yuan S/iih Kai, 
continued and expanded the program of improvements 
in the metropolitan province. Schools of all grades 
multiplied, the nucleus of an efficient army was drilled 
by German and Japanese officers. Thousands of 
students flocked to Japan, to America, and to 
European universities for instruction in Western 
learning. The giant at last was really awake. 

Effects on China of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance and the 
Russo-Japanese War. — The agreement between England and 
Japan and the treaty of Portsmouth have guaranteed for 
China a period of security. The Manchurian question, to 
be sure, is not yet definitely settled. Article V. of the 
Portsmouth treaty says : " The Russian and Japanese 
Governments engage themselves reciprocally not to put any 
obstacles in the way of the general measures, which shall be 
alike for all nations, that China may take for the develop- 
ment of the commerce and industry of Manchuria." 

The interpretation of this article is still an open question. 
It may develop into an unconditional restoration of China's 
sovereign rights in Manchuria, or it may also be nullified by 
the economic interests of Russia and Japan. 



APPENDIX I 

SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 

Preliminary Remarks. — Questions in smaller type are only for 
students who have read the small-type passages in the text. 

DiflFerent kinds of Questions. — The questions which are most 
frequently asked in exercises and examinations, can be classed 
somewhat as follows : 

I. Questions of fact. 

(i) Personality: W/zo did a certain thing? 

(2) Place : Where did a certain event happen ? What places 

were affected by a certain cause or event? 

(3) Time : When did a certain event happen ? How long 

did a certain period last? 

(4) A combination of the above. This is the commonest 

kind of examination questions, which can be well 

answered by every student who has memorized the 

text. 

Questions of fact will be most numerous in every recitation. 

They arise practically of themselves from the text. By way of 

example a few will be given for the early chapters. 

II. Questions of comparison. 

(i) Comparison with recent or contemporary events or con- 
ditions in one's own country. 

(2) The same in other countries. 

(3) Comparison with events or periods in the history pre- 

viously learned. 

(4) Comparison of historical personalities. 



478 APPENDIX I. 

This class of questions is more difficult, both for the questioner 
and for the student. In comparing events or persons widely 
separated both in time and in place, one easily falls into error. 
Nevertheless such questions are very helpful in enlivening history. 
They bring the dry text into relation with real life. 

III. Questions of causation. 

Whenever causes are pointed out in the text, these questions 
practically resolve themselves into questions of fact. Frequently 
causes are not pointed out, but the thoughtful student can under- 
stand how succeeding events have been prepared or conditioned 
by previous events. A few frequent subdivisions follow : 
(i) Geographical causes. 

(2) Natural causes (connected with climate, soil, etc.). 
■ (3) Causes lying in racial or individual character. 
(4) Causes lying in certain institutions. 

IV. Questions of effect. 

These may be inversions of questions of causation. For example : 
"Why was Phoenicia situated so favorably for trade?" (asking for 
geographical causes) ; or, " What effect did the geographical position 
of Phoenicia, with its good harbors, have on the people's occu- 
pation ? " 

(i) Effects of geographical position. 

(2) Effects of natural conditions (soil, climate, etc.). 

(3) Effects of racial or individual character. 

(4) Effects of certain institutions. 

(5) Effects of certain events. 

Questions of cause or effect are most valuable for training the 
judgment and the logical sense of the student. The greatest care 
should be observed both in asking and in answering such questions. 
Otherwise one is liable to fall into ' loose talking,' and into purely 
theoretical reasoning. Human conduct depends on so many 
motives, and history is determined by so many factors, that one 
cannot often reason from cause to effect so easily as in a question 
of pure logic. Historical judgment will grow with knowledge. It 
is based on the observation that certain causes have always produced 
certain effects, whence it safely may be assumed that a repetition 
of those causes will again produce similar effects. 



SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 479 

The first part of the subjoined questions will be referred to the 
headings and subheadings given above, so as to show examples of 
each. 

Introduction. 

1. What is history ? 

2. Name some things that have influenced the progress of 
nations. 

3. About how long has man existed? (I. 3.) 
. 4. What are the sources of history? (I.) 

5. Can a tribe of illiterate savages have a real history? (IV. 3.) 

6. What is meant by 'prehistoric times'? 

7. How can we know anything about prehistoric times ? (I.) 

8. Why have negroes been used as slaves oftener than other 
races ? (III. 3.) 

9 Name the principal branches of the Yellow Race. 

10. Why did the Arabs remain a free people? (III. i.) 

11. Name the principal Celtic people. 

12. Try to compare a tribe of nomadic herdsmen with a village of farmers. 

13. Tell some advantages of modern western chronology. 

Chapter I. 

. I. Why was Egypt specially suited for the early rise of civili- 
zation ? (III. 1 and 2.) 

2. Who built Memphis? (I. i.) 

3. How far did the Egyptian empire extend under the i8th 
dynasty? (I. 2.) 

4. In what ways have the Red Sea and the Mediterranean been 
connected? (II. 2.) 

5. Have you heard of any kind of animal worship in any other 
country besides ancient Egypt? (II. i and 2.) 

6. Why did the Egyptians spend so much labor on tombs? 

(III. 4.) 

7. Why are Egyptian paintings so well preserved? (III. 2.) 

8. Why could Egyptian doctors not study anatomy? (III. 4.) 

9. Describe the position of women in Egypt. 

Chapter II. 

1. How long did the old Babylonian empire last? (I. 3.) 

2. Who was the first ruler of Babylonia? (I. i.) 



48o APPENDIX I. 

3. What countries were under the rule of the Assyrian Sargon? 

(I. 2.) 

4. Why was Assyrian rule specially disliked? (III. 3.) 

5. In what year did Nineveh fall? (I. 3.) 

6. Some people call Paris a modern Babylon. What do they 
mean? (11, i.) 

7. Describe cuneiform writing. 

8. Are the Babylonians the only people who thought of their 
gods as looking like men and women ? (II. i and 2). 

9. Quote the code of Hammurabi on (a) housebreaking, (d) bodily injury. 



Chapter III. 

1. Why do the Jews hold such a high place in history? 

(III. 4.) 

2. Through whose teaching were Jewish doctrines spread over 
the western world? (I. i.) 

3. In what language was {a) the Old Testament, (d) the New 
Testament written ? 

4. Name the two ancient divisions of Palestine, with their capitals. 

5. Who was the most celebrated Jewish king? When did he 
rule ? (I. I and 3.) 

6. What is meant by calling a person a second Solomon ? 

7. What was the effect of the Jews' refusal to conform to the 
Roman state religion ? (IV. 3 and 4.) 

8. How did. the central position of Phoenicia affect the trade 
of the country? (IV. i.) 

9. Is a purely commercial people apt to take any interest in 
history? (IV. 3.) 

10. What beneficial effect did Phoenician trade have on the 
Mediterranean countries? (IV. 4.) 

Chapter IV. 

1. Do you suppose that the contrasts in the natural conditions 
of Persia had any influence on the religion of the inhabitants? 

(IV. 2.) 

2. Would you consider pure Zoroastrianism to be a helpful 
religion? Why? (111.4.) 

3. Describe the life of Cyrus the Great. (I. i, 2, 3.) 
' 4. What is meant . by satrapal government ? 



SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 481 

Chapter V. 

1. Were the Himalaya mountains a perfect protection against 
foreign enemies? (111. i.) 

2. What effect has a hot climate on people coming from a 
cooler climate? (IV. 2.) 

3. Name the three principal stocks of the original inhabitants 
of India? 

4. Describe the principal Indian castes. 

5. What religion has the largest number of adherents ? 

6. Describe the life of Buddha. 

7. What is meant by Nirvana? Can you give a clear explanation 
of it ? 

8. When and by whom was Buddhism introduced into China? 

(I. I and 3.) 

9. Is Lamaism just like the original doctrine of Buddha? 

10. Why did ancient China have little need of foreign goods? 

(III. I and 2.) 

11. What effect did the mountains and deserts on the west and 
north of China have on her history? (IV. i.) 

12. Why is the population of China so remarkably uniform, while 
that of India is so varied? (IV. 3, 5, and II. 2,) 

13. Describe the life of Confucius. 

14. Why do some scholars call Confucianism a system of morality 
rather than a religion ? 

15. What effect did the teaching of Confucius have on the 
Chinese ? (IV. 4.) 

16. Cite the 'Golden Rule.' Do you think that there is any 
essential difference between Christ's way and Confucius' way of 
stating this rule? 

17. Why could China not be a strong nation under the Chow 
dynasty? (III. 4.) 

18. Compare the government of Shih Hwang-ti with that of 
Darius. Which was first instituted ? (II. 3.) 

19. What is meant by a 'patriarchal monarchy'? 

20. Do the Chinese, in their old institutions, have any kind of 
self-government ? 

21. Discuss the reasons why the Chinese family system encourages 
conservatism. 

22. In what respects must every one regard Chinese civilization 
as superior to any other? 

G.H. 2 H 



482. . APPENDIX I. . 

23. Do you see any early indications that Corea was apt to 
cause trouble between China and Japan ? 

24. Why can the Japanese be called good imitators? 

Chapter VI. 

1. What feature of Greek geography made tmited national 
development difficult ? 

2. In what way did the natural formation of Greece encourage 
commerce ? 

3. Do you believe that beautiful scenery is likely to encourage 
the production of poetry and art? Is the poetry and art of your 
own country influenced by natural scenery ? 

4. Have we heard of any other monarchy in which the king 
stood over his people like a father over the family? 

5. Is there much individualism in your own country? 

6. What was the origin of Constantinople and Marseilles? 

7. Describe the social classes in Sparta. 

8. Does an excessive cultivation of the military spirit lead to 
national progress? Use Spartan history as an illustration. 

9. What is the meaning of the phrase 'Draconian laws'? 

10. Write out a summary of the Athenian constitution as reformed 
by Solon. 

11. What were the powers of the Ecclesia after Cleisthenes? 
' 12. What is meant by 'Free Speech'? 

Chapter VII. 

1. Describe the battle of Marathon. 

2. Why is the battle of Marathon counted among the decisive battles of 
the world ? 

3. Could the fall of Miltiades be used as an argument against excessive 
individualism ? Why ? 

4. Why can the battle of Thermopylae be called a ' moral 
victory' for the Greeks? 

5. What was the original purpose of the Delian confederacy? 

6. Describe how the Delian confederacy was gradually changed 
into an Athenian empire. 

7. For what reasons can Pericles be called ' king of men without 
force or hereditary right'? 

8. Does a man's education stop when he has left school? 
What opportunities did the Athenians have for continuing their 
education through manhood? 



SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 483 

9. AVhat dangers threatened the Athenian democracy after 
Pericles ? 

Chapter VIII. 
■ I. What were the causes of the Peloponnesian war? 

2. Use the career of Alcibiades to show that brilliant ability 
without morality is more likely to work harm than good. 

3. What were the results of the Peloponnesian war? Were 
they advantageous to Persia? 

4. Is Epaminondas a man to be admired ? Why ? 

5. Show that Philip II. got from the Greeks the means— in 
great part at least — by which he afterwards conquered them, 

6. If you can get access to a cyclopedia or a history of 
Greece, read the life of Demosthenes. 

Chapter IX. 

1. Why did the priests at Delphi often give out oracles with 
a double meaning ? 

2. Is the Greek ideal of ' a sound mind in a sound body ' 
worthy of practical imitation? 

3. How did it happen that courtesans played such a prominent part in 
Greek social life? 

4. Explain why the -Greek citizens could spend so much time 
on public business. 

5. Do you know of any man in the history of your own 
country who (a) had such a high ideal of truth as Socrates, 
(l>) possessed such universal knowledge as Aristotle? 

Chapter X. 

1. Name all the countries conquered by Alexander the Great. 

2. Whose influence has lasted longer : that of the conqueror 
Alexander, or that of the scholar Aristotle? 

3. Give the principal results of Alexander's conquests. 

Chapter XI. 

I. Is Rome the only state the early history of which is 
mixed with myth or fable? What other instances of the kind 
have we had? How do you account for this prevalence of myth 
at the beginning of history? (Love of story telling, pride of 
ancestry, desire of ruling classes to strengthen their authority over 
the people, ignorance, credulity, superstition.) 



484 APPENDIX I. 

2. Compare the condition of debtors in early Rome with that 
in early Athens. 

3. Was the character of the early Romans favorable for a military 
nation ? Explain why. 

4. Where did the Roman legion first encounter the Macedonian 
phalanx ? What was Pyrrhus' opinion of the Roman soldiers ? 

Chapter XII. 

1. The Romans believed that the prosperity of Carthage could 
only be a disadvantage to Rome. Is that necessarily true? Is 
the prosperity of America hurtful to Europe or to Japan ? 

2. The Barcas family is remarkable for having produced four 
great generals. Is extraordinary abiUty often handed on from 
father to son ? Note all cases mentioned in previous chapters and 
hereafter, where a great father had also a great son or grandson. 

3. Use the cases of Pyrrhus and Hannibal to show that even 
a great general cannot hold his own in the country of a deter- 
mined enemy unless he has free communication with his base of 
supplies. 

4. Farming taxes means selling to an individual, for a lump 
sum, the right to collect the taxes in a certain district. Have 
you heard of tax-farming in other countries? Do you consider 
it a good system ? 

Chapter XIII. 

1. Show that the conquests of Rome led to the corruption of 
her citizens. 

2. Explain the saying that three years of proconsulship were 
required to make a man's fortune. 

3. Explain why the common Roman citizens became so poor. 

4. What example did Mithridates have before him when he 
planned an invasion of Italy? 

5. Write a life of Caesar. 

6. Could such an outrage as the conspiracy of Catiline possibly have 
happened during the early Roman republic ? Give the reasons for your opinion. 

7. Liberty had long ago fled together with the ancient civic 
virtues of the Romans. Discuss this topic. 

Chapter XIV. 

I. Does the name given to a government always show its real 
character? Use the Roman government under Augustus as an 
illustration. 



SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 485 

2. Diocletian shared his power with three co-regents. Taking 

human nature as it is, do you believe such a division of sovereignty 

to be generally advisable ? Did it work well after Diocletian's 
death ? 

Chapter XV. 

1. Why is Justinian called the ' law giver of civilization ' ? Was the Roman 
law made all at once, or is it the result of slow growth ? 

2. Discuss the reasons why good roads tend to keep an empire together. 

3. Do you know of any buildings in your own country which have stood 
as long as existing Roman buildings? What nation in the East can be com- 
pared with the Romans as ' borrowers of culture ' ? 

4. Describe the civilizing work of the Roman empire. 

5. Why were the early Christians persecuted ? 

6. What were some of the benefits given to the West by Christianity? 

7. What is meant by ' religious intolerance ' ? 

Closing Remarks. — The 125 illustrative questions above given will 
be a sufficient guide to the ' art of asking questions.' Of course 
the proportion of questions of comparison will increase as the 
students advance in knowledge. 



: Periods and Events. 



{a) 



? 100,000 

5000 B.C.SIA AND INDIA. 

Prehistorii 
existence 
of man. 



5000 B.Ci 
4000 

3000 



Arian invasion of India. 



1000 ,, p 



:mpire, 640-558. 

aunder of Persian em- 
58. 



500 „ lied, 543. 

Ionian Greeks, 500. 



400 „ 



300 » 



ider Alexander, 330. 
Alexander in India, 327. 



THE FAR EAST. 



Beginnings of civilization in the 
Yellow River basin. 

Legendary period of Chinese 
history. 

Foundation of Chow dynasty 
/^9 /fw)' feutlal period. 

Jimmu Tenno, first Em- 
peror of Japan, 660. 



Confucius, 551-479 ( -fL ;^ "f ) 



'°° »f ft the Parthians founded, 
ing about the same coun- 
Persia. Crassus killed 



End of feudal period in China. 
Shih Hwang-ti (jf^ ^ '^) 

unites the nation, 246-221. 

Great WaU. . 



Han dynasty (J^ ^g), 206-25. 



? 100,000- 

5000 B.C. 

Prehistoric 
existence 
of man. 

5000 B.C. 
4000 ,, 

3000 ,, 

2000 ,, 

1000 ,, 



500 „ 



400 „ 



300 



200 ,, 



100 ,, 



? 100,000- 
5000 B.C. 

Prehistoric 
existence 
of man. 

5000 B.C. 
4000 ,, 



3000 



1000 ,, 



500 „ 
400 „ 

300 .. 



100 „ 



II. Comparative Chronological Table of a Few Great Periods and Events. 



(a) 



THE NEW WORLD. 



EUROPE AND MEDITERRANEAN COUNTRIES. 



PERSIA AND INDIA. 



Beginnings of civilization in the Nile valley. 

Menes founds 1st Egyptian dynasty. 
Pyramid of Cheops, 2800 (?). 

Phoenicians trade in Eastern Mediterranean. 

Rameses II., canal from Red Sea to Nile, 1350. 
Hiram of Tyre allied with Salomon, king 

of the Jews, 1000. 
Kingdom of Israel destroyed by Assyrian 

Sargon, 722. 

Psammetichus I., founder of 26th dynasty, 663. 
Jerusalem destroyed ; Babylonian captivity, 
Solon in Athens, 694. 
Egypt a Persian province, 525. 

Rome a Republic, 610. 

laws of 12 tables in Rome, 450. 

Gauls destroy Rome, 390. 



Beginnings of civilization in the 

Tigris and Euphrates basin. 
Sargon unites Baliy Ionia. 



Code of Hammurabi, 2200. 



Assyrian Empire, 1300. 
Greek poet Homer. 

Constitution of Lycurgus in Sparta, 

800. 
Foundation of Rome, 753. 

Second Babylonian empire, 606. 
586. 



Babylonia a Persian provfnce, 538. 

Persian wars in Greece, 500-449. 
Age of Pericles, 444-429. 
Peloponnesian War. Socrates. 

Demosthenes. 
Greece under Macedonia, 338. 

Aristotle. 
Alexander the Great, 336-323. 



Romans make war on Macedonia. 
Romans overthrow the Macedonian 
monarchy in battle of Pydna, 168. 

4th Macedonian War ; Macedonia a 
Roman province, 146. 



Egypt under the Ptolemies. 
Alexandria centre of learning. 

Defeat of I'yrrhus by the Romans. All Italy 

under Rome, 275. 
First Punic war, 264-241 ; Hamilcar. Sicily 

a Roman province. 
Sardinia and Corsica a Roman province. 
Second Punic war, 218-201. Hannibal. 

Cannae, 216. 
Spain a Roman province. 

Destruction of Carthage, 146. Africa a 
Roman province. Greek revolt ; destruc- 
tion of Corinth, 146. 

Reforms of the Gracchi, and civil war in 
Rome ; Optimates deleat democrats. 

Marius defeats the Cimbri and Teutones, 102 
and loi. 

Mithridalic wars. Civil war between Maiius 

and Sulla ; proscriptions. 
First Triumvirate, 60. Caesar's conquest of 3 Roman provinces set up in Western 
Gaul. Civil war between Caesar and Asia. 
Pompey. 
Pompey killed in Egypt. After wars in Asia 
Minor, Africa and Spain, Caesar practicnlly 
sole ruler. Caesarism. Catsar killed, 44. 
3rd Triumvirate. 
Antony and Cleopatra lose battle of Actium 
against Octavian, 31. Caesar Octavianus 
Augustus first Emperor, 31-14 a. d. 
Egypt a Roman province. 



Arian invasion of India. 



Zoroaster. 



Median Empire, 640-558. 

Cjrrus, founder of Persian em- 
pire, 658. 

Buddha died, 643. 

Revolt of Ionian Greeks, 500. 



Persia under Alexander, 330. 

Alexander in India, 327. 



THE FAR EAST. 



Empire of the Parthians founded, 
occupying about the same coun- 
tries as Persia. Crassus killed 
by them. 



Beginnings of civilization in the 
Yellow River basin. 

Legendary period of Chinese 
history. 

Foundation of Chow dynasty 
(ffl 1^)' f^-"^1=^l IK-riod. 

Jimmu Tcnno, fust Em- 
peror of japan, 660. 



ConfuoiuB, 661-479 (-j^^-J^ ) 



End of feudal period in China. 
Shih Hwang ti (^ ^ •^') 

unites the nation, 246 221. 

Great WaU. . 



Han dynasty (m Wj, 206-25. 



? 100,000- 

5000 B.C. 

Prehistoric 
existence 
of man, 

5000 B.C. 
4000 ,, 

;ooo ,, 



500 



4<)o 



300 



p. 486. 



5 and Events ( co?iiinued ) . 




(^) 



THE FAR EAST. 



100 A.DJefeats the Parthians, but 
an gives up the conquest. 



200 ,, empire broken up; foun 
of new Persian empire of 
fssanidae, 226. 



400 



500 ,, p I., greatest of the Sassa- 
53 '"579 ; advantageous 
s with East Roman em- 
period of good govern- 
md prosperity. 



6op ,, tween Persia and Eastern 



700 



the Sassanids ; Persia 
led by caliphs, 641. 



Ming Ti (^^ ^^\ introduces 
Buddhism. 

Later Han dynasty (^ '^ ^g) 
25-221. 



Introduction of Chinese civi- 
lization into Japan. 



T'ang dynasty /ffi ^a\ 
618 908. \/rt ihU/? 

China's boundaries reach the 
Caspian Sea. 

Period of good government, learn- 
ing, and prosperity in China. 



Emperor Kuammu makes 
Kioto the capital, 794. 



300 „ 



400 



500 



600 



700 



Comparative Chronological Table of a Few Great Periods and Events (continued). 



THE NEW WORLD. 



200 ,, 



400 



500 ,, 



60P ,, 



700 ,, 



EUROPE AND MEDITERRANEAN COUNTRIES. 



BIRTH OF CHRIST. 

Roman army destroyed by Germans in forest of Teutoburg, 9. Britain a Roman 
province, ist Christian persecution in Rome under Nero, 64. Destruction of 
Jerusalem by Titus. Dispersal of the Jews, 70. 

Five good Emperors, 96-180. Trajan makes Dacia a Roman province ; 
origin of Roumanians. 



Period of decline ; threatened dissolution of the empire, until 270. 
Aurelian restored the empire, 270-275. 



Diocletian, 284-305, had a co-regent, and Severe persecution of the 

appointed 2 assistant regents, or 'Caesars.' Christians. 

Constantlne the Great, 323-337. Cbristlanity recognized by the State. 
Constantinople capital ; empire divided into 116 provinces. 
Huns cross the Volga, 375 ; beginning of the niigraiion of the Teutonic tribes. 

Visigoths south of Lower Danube. 
Theodosius, last sole ruler of whole Roman empire, divides in 395 ; Arcadius gets 
Eastern (Byzantine), Honorius Western empire. 



PERSIA AND INDIA. 



Sack of Rome by Alaric, 410. Visigoths settle 

in Southern Gaul. 
Vandals coming from Carthage plunder Rome, 

455. Huns under Attila defeated at Chalons, 

451- 

Last Western emperor, Roumulus Augustu- 

lus, deposed by German Odoacer, 476. 
Kingdom of the East. Goths under Theodoric in Italy, 493. Clovis, king of the 
Franks ; he is converted to Athanasian Christianity. 



Invasion of Britain by Angles and 
Saxons, after 450. 

Britain changed into England. 



VJsigothic kingdom in Spain, since 507. 

Narses destroys East Gothic kingdom, 555. 

Beginning of the Papacy. 

Last jMerowingian kings of the Franks (Do- 
nothing kings) ; mayois of the palace. 



Visigothic kingdom of Spain destroyed by Sara- 
cens, 711. 

Charles Martel defeated Arabs (Saracens) 

at Tours and Poitiers, 7;2. 
Pipin, first Carolingian kirg of the Franks, 

75'- . ^ . 

Mohammedan Moors in Spam. 

Caliphate of Cordova, 756. 



Justinian I. , Emperor of the East, 
627-566 ; ' corpus juris civilis. ' 
Lombards in Italy ; Alboin, 568. 



Hegira (flight of Mohammed), 
622. 

Omar caliph, conquest of .Syria, 
Phoenicia, Egypt, 634-644. 

Ar.ab conquest of Northern Africa. 

Caliphate of the Ommiads at 
Damascus, 661-750. 



Abbasid caliphs at Bagdad, 750, 



Trajan defeats the Parthians, but 
liadrian gives up tiie conquest. 

Parthian empire broken up; foun 
dation of new Persian empire of 
the Sassanidae, 226. 



Chosroes I., greatest of the Sassa- 
nids, 531-579; advantageous 
treaties with East Roman em- 
pire ; period of good govern- 
ment aiid prosperity. 

Wars between Persia and l^astern 
Rome. 

Fall of the Sassani'ls ; Persia 
governed by caliphs, 641. 



THE FAR EAST. 



Ming Ti {\S}\ |[1) introduces 
Bu(Ulhi>ui. 

Later Han dynasty (^fjlVijjQ) 
25-221. 



Introduction of Chinese civi- 
lizaliou ink) Japan. 



T'ang dynasty 
618 908. 



China's boundaries reach the 
Caspian Sea. 

Period of good government, learn- 
ing, and prosperity in China. 



Emperor Kuammu makes 
Kioto the capital, 794. 



{^) 



200 ,, 



300 , , 



400 



SCO 



600 



700 



p. 486. 



>ds and Events (continued). 



ERSIA AND INDIA. 



800 A.L 



900 „ 



1000 ,, 



ic) 



THE FAR EAST. 



1200 „ 



bl Conquest of Persia ; last 
jasid surrenders Bagdad, 



Development of feudalism 
in Japan. 



1300 



1400 „ 



overruns inner Asia, Persia, 



uguese come to India. 



1500 



under Ottoman rule. 
;r sets up the Moghul em- 
re in India, 1 526. 



Yoritomo appointed shogun, 
1 192. 

Temujin conquers North China, 
1215. 
Duarchy and feudalism in 

Japan. 
Failure of Kublai Khouv's 
attack on Japan, 1274. 
Kublai Khan, first emperor ofYiian 
dynasty {j^ ^g), 1280. 

Marco Polo in Chma ; intercourse 
with Europe. 

Accession of Ming dynasty 

m IB), -s^s- 



800 „ 



900 



Portuguese settle at Macao, 1540. 
Xavier preaches Christianity in 
Japan. 
Jesuits in China, 1582. 



1300 



1400 



1500 „ 



Comparative Chronological Table of a Few Great Periods and Events (continued). 



800 A.U. 



900 



IIOO ,, 



1200 ,, 



1300 



1400 



1500 



THE NEW WORLD. 



Northmen settled in Green- 
land and on the east 
coast of North America. 
Their settlements failed. 
All knowledge of their 
discovery was lost by the 
fourteenth century . 



Discovery of America toy 
Columbus, 1492..M 



Cortez conquers Mexico, 

1519-1521. 
Pizarro conquers Peru, 

1531-1532. 



EUROPE AND MEDITERRANEAN COUNTRIES. 



Charles tbe Great, 768-814 

the West, 800. 
Treaty of Verdun ; division of the empire, 

843. 



Emperor of Haroun al-Raschid, caliph, 786- 
809. 

Hungarians settle in Hungary. 



Hungarians defeated on the Lech- 
feld, 955. 



Alfred the Great in England, 871-901. 
Northmen settle in Normandy. 
Otto I., the Great, 936-973. 
Holy Roman Empire of the German 
Nation, 962. 

Danes rule England. 

Norman Conquest of England ; William, Harold, Battle of Hastings, 1066. 
Pope Gregory VH. and German Emperor Henry IV ; Canossa, 1077. 

First Crusade, 1096-1099. 



Frederic I., Barbarossa, 1152-1190, German Emperor. 
Third Crusade, 1 189- 1 192. 



Magna Charta granted toy King John of Eng- 
land, 1215. Height of Papal power. 

Magnetic needle applied to navigation. 
Seventh Crusade, 1270. 



Mongol Conquest of Russia, 
1237-1241. 

Supremacy of Ottoman Turks 
in Asia Minor. 



Battle of Cre9y, in 100 Years' War between England and France, 1346. 

powder introduced into warfare. 
Great Schism of the Roman Church ; decline of the Papacy. 



Gun- 



Bajazet defeated by Timur at Angora, 1402. 
German crown hereditary in Hapsburg family, 1438. 
Wars of the Roses in England, 1455- 1485 ; monarchy strengthened. 
Louis XI. lays basis of strong French monarchy, 1461-1483. 
Union of Castile and Aragon, 1469. 

Printing Press used toy John Gutentoerg at Mainz. 
Expulsion of Moors from Granada, 1492. Conquest of Constantinople toy 

Vasco da Gama finds seaway to India, 1498. Muhammed II., 1453. 

Iwan III., the Great, in Russia; end of Tartar dominion. 



Beginning of the Reformation, Luther, 
15 1 7. World empire of Charles V., 
1519-1556. 
Philip II. in Spain. 
Act of Supremacy in England, 1534- 
Reign of Elizabeth in England, 1 558- 1 603. 
Union of Utrecht, William of Orange, 1579. 
Armada lost, 1588. 

Henry IV. of France issues Edict of Nantes, 1598- 
Russian Conquest of Sibiria. 



Suleiman I. conquers Hungary 
and Cyprus ; height of Otto- 
man power, 1 520- 1 566. 



PERSIA AND INDIA. 



Mongol Conquest of Persia ; last 
Abbasid surrenders ~ 
1258. . 



Timur overruns inner Asia, Persia, 
India. 



Portuguese come to India. 



Persia under Ottoman rule. 
Baber sets up the Moghul em- 
pire in India, 1526. 



THE FAR EAST. 



Development of feudalism 
in Japan. 



Yoritomo appointed shogun, 
1192. 

Temujin conquers North China, 
1215. 
Duarchy and feudalism in 

Japan. 
Failure of Kublai Khouv's 
attack on Japan, 1274. 
Kublai Khan, first emperor of Yttan 

dynasty (y^ ^B), "80. 
Marco Polo in China ; intercourse 

with Europe. 
Accession of Ming dynasty 



Portuguese settle at Macao, 1540. 
Xavier preaches Christianity in 
Japan. 
Jesuits in China, 1582. 



w 



s and Events (continued). 



id) 



1600 A. D. 



1700 



1750 



1800 ,, 



1850 



1900 



^SIA AND INDIA. 



jlish East India Company 
t Surat and Madias. 



tie of Plassey, 1757; 
live. 



:onflicts with Russia. 



oy Mutiny, 1857. 

toria, Empress of India, 
377- 



Constitution, 1906. 



THE FAR EAST. 



lyeyasu; Tokugawa shogu- 
nate, 1603. 
Beginning of English trade. 
TaCh|ingdynasty(_^.^^g^ 

Period of Greatness, K'ang tlsi 

\/.>|v j.»./ Christianity. 
Seclusion of Japan ; expulsion 
of Christians. 
Treaty of Nerchinsk with Russia, 
1689. 

Ch'ienLung($£^), ;736 



' 1796. 



Military success abroad, peace 

and prosperity at home. 
Beginning of decline. 



Opium War; Treaty of Nanking, 
1812. 



Perry in Japan, opening of 
the country, 1854. 
War with England and France ; 
Treaty of Tientsin, 1859. 
Fall of shogunate ; new era 

in Japan, 1868. 
Constitutional government, 
1890. 
Chino-Japanese War, Treaty of 

Shimonoseki, 1895. 
Boxer Rising. 

Preservation of 'open door,' 1 901. 
Russo-Japanese War, 1904- 

1905. 
Treaty of Portsmouth, 1905. 

Reform. 

Renewal of Anglo-Japanese 
Alliance, 1905. 



1600 A.D. 



1700 



1750 



1800 ,, 



1850 



1900 



Comparative Chronological Table of a Few Great Periods and Events (continued). 



(^ 



1600 A. D. 



1700 



1750 



1800 



1850 



1900 



THE NEW WORLD. 



EUROPE AND MEDITERRANEAN COUNTRIES. 




Settlement of Jamestown 
In Virginia, 1607. 

French in Canada, 1608. 
Settlement of Plymouth in 

New England, 1620. 
Dutch New Amsterdam 

becomes English New 

York, 1664. 
.Mississippi valley taken for 

Louis XIV. ; called 

Louisiana, 1682. 



Treaty of Utrecht ; France 
cedes Nova Scotia, etc , 
to England, 1713. 

Last of the 13 English 
colonies settled, 1733. 

Peace of Paris ends the 
French and Indian 
(Seven Years') War, 1763, 

France cedes Canada to 
England. 

Stamp Act, 1765. 

War of Independence, 
1 77 5- 1 783 ; Declaration 
of Independence, 1776. 

George Washington, presi- 
dent, 1789. 

Louisiana purchase, 1803. 

English settlements in 
Australia. 

War with England, 1S12- 
1814. 

South American States in- 
dependent. 

Monroe doctrine, 1823. 

War with Mexico, 1846- 
1848. 

CivU War in U.S., 1861- 
1865. 

War with Spain ; Philip- 
pines to U.S., 1898. 



Commonwealth " 
Australia, 1901. 



of 



Richelieu in France. Thirty Years' War, 1618-164S; Peace of Westphalia, 1648. 
Accession of James Stuart, union of England and Scotland, 1603. 
Civil war in England, execution of Charles, 1649. 
Commonwealth and Protectorate, 1649- 1660. 
Restoration of Charles II., 1660. 

English Revolution of 1688 ; Declaration of Rights. 
Personal government of Louis XIV. in France, 1661-1715. 

Revocation of Edict of Nantes, 1685. Peter the Great in Russia, 1689- 

Peace of Ryswick ; Germany cedes Alscacc to J726, 

France, 1697. 



War of Spanish Succession, 1701-1714. 

War of Austrian Succession, 1740- 1748. 

Frederick the Great of Prussia, 1740- 1786. 
Maria Theresa of Austria, 1740- 1780. 



Seven Years' War, 1756-1763. Catherine II. in Russia, 1762-1796. 

George III., king of England, 1760- 1820. 

Division of Poland between Prussia, Austria, and Russia. 
French revolution, 1789; France a republic. Steam engine, 1769. 

1792; execution of Louis XVI., 1793; Power loom, 1785. 

Reign of Terror, 1794. 
Napoleon in Italy, 1797 ; First Consul, 1799. 



Napoleon Emperor of the French, 1804. 

Slearii boat, 1807 ; Locomotive, 1814. 

Napoleon's Russian campaign, 1812. 
Battle of Waterloo, 1815. 
July revolution in Paris, 1830. Independence of Greece, 1830. 

Reform Act in England, 1832. Electric telegraph, 1844. 

Revolution of 1848 ; fall of Metternich in Austria ; constitutions. 



Napoleon III., emperor, 1852. Crimean War, 1854-1856. 

United kingdom of Italy, 1861. . Russian advance m Central Asia. 
Austro- Prussian War, 1S66. 
Franco-Prussian War, 1870-1871 ; formation of the new German empire. 
Third French Republic. Electric telephone, 1877. 

Encrlish in E^ypt, 18S2. Independence of lesser Balkan States, 1S7S 

Paration of Africa among European Powers. Building of Siberian railway. 



Boer War ; English supreme in South Africa, 1000. ^ „-«♦,,««« ion's 

' ^' '^ Russian Revolution ; Constitution, 1905. 



English East India Company 
at Surat and Madras. 



Battle of Plaseey, 1767 
CUve. 



Persian conflicts with Rus.sia. 



Sepoy Mutiny, 1867. 
Victoria, Empress of India, 
1877. 



Persian constitution, 1906. 



lyeyasu; Tokugawa shogu 
uate, 1603. 

Beginning ot' Knijlish tnulc. 
TaC^Vingdynasty(_;^,^|jJ^1^ 

Period of (irci\tni"ss, K'ai\|; llsi 

\»li. 5.../ l-liristmuity. 
Seclusion of Jupiin ; expulsion 
of Christiims. 
Trciity of Nerchinsk with Russia, 
1089. 

anc„Lung(iJ£|f|?), ;7.j;;; 



Militiiry success nbroiul, pcai 

anil prosperity at home. 
Beginning of decline. 



Opium War ; Treaty of Nanking, 
1842. 



I'erry in Japan, opening of 
the country, 1854. 
War with lMit;laii(l and I'rance ; 
Treaty of 'licnlsin, 1859- 
FaU of Bhogunate ; new era 

In Japan, 1868. 
Con.siituli(;nai government, 
1890. 
Chino-Japanese War, Treaty of 

Shimonoseki, 1895. 
Boxer Rising. 

Preservation of open door,' 1901. 
Busflo- Japanese War, 1904- 

1906. 
Treaty of Portsmouth, 1906. 

Reform. 

Renewal of Anglo-Japane.se 

Alliance, 1905^ 



1600 A.D. 



1700 



1750 



1800 



1850 



1900 



p. 486. 



INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 



The pronunciation of proper names follows that given in the Century 
Cyclopedia of Nantes^ from which work the following key to pronun- 
ciation is also taken. 



a as in fat, man, pang. 

a as in fate, mane, dale, 

a as in far, father, guard. 

a as in fall, talk. 

a as in ask, fast, ant. 

a as in fare. 

e as in met, pen, bless. 

e as in mete, meet. 

e as in her, fern. 

i as in pin, it. 

i as in pine, fight, file. 

o as in not, on, frog. 

o as in note, poke, floor. 

o as in move, spoon. 

6 as in nor, song, off. 

u as in tub. 

u as in mute, acute. 

u as in pull. 

ii German ii, French u. 

oi as in oil, joint, boy. 

ou as in pound, proud. 

A single dot under a 
vowel in an unaccented 
syllable indicates its abbre- 
viation and lightening, 
without absolute loss of 
its distinctive quality. 
Thus : 

a as in prelate, courage. 



e as in ablegate, epis- 
copal. 

o as in abrogate, eulogy, 
democrat. 

ij as in singular, educa- 
tion. 

A double dot under a 
vowel in an unaccented 
syllable indicates that, even 
in the mouths of the best 
speakers, its sound is vari- 
able to, and in ordinary 
utterance actually becomes, 
the short u-sonnd (of but, 
pun, etc.). Tl)us : 

a asin errant, republican. 

e as in prudent, differ- 
ence. 

i as in charity, density. 

o as in valor, actor, idiot. 

a asin Persia, peninsula. 

e as in the book. 

u as in nature, feature. 

A mark (~) under the con- 
sonants t, di s, z, indicates 
that they in like rrianner are 
variable to ch, j, sh, zh. 
Thus : 

t as in nature, adventure. 



d as in arduous, educa- 
tion. 

S as in pressure. 

z as in seizure. 
y as in yet. 
B Spanish b (medial), 
ch as in German ach,- 

Scotch loch. 
G as in German, Abensr 

berg, Hamburg. - 
H Spanish g before e and i ; 

Spanish j, etc. (a guttural 

h). Like northern Chi- 
nese h in hao. 
n French nasalizing n, as 

in ton, en. 
s final s in Portuguese 

(soft), 
th as in thin. 
TH as in then. 
D = TH. 

' denotes a primary ;• 
" a secondary accent. (A 
secondary accent is not 
marked if at its regular 
interval of two syllables . 
from the primary, or from 
another secondary.) 



Abbas (ab'bas), 205. 

Abbassides (a-bas'idz or ab'a-sidz), 

205, 227. 
Abd-er-Rahman (abd-er-rah'man), 

205. 
Abelard (ab'e-lard), 249. 
Abessynia (ab-es-sin'i-a), 444. 
Abolitionists, 449, 450. 



Abukir (a-bo-ker), 354- 
Abraham (a'bra-ham), 33. 
Acropolis (a-krop'5-lis), 82, 103. 
Act of Supremacy, 264. 
Adrianople (ad"ri-an-o'pl), treaty of, 

403- 
Aegaean archipelago (e-je'an ar-ki- 
pel'a-go), 71. 



488 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 



Afghanistan (af-gan-is-tan'), 43, 429, 

432, 437- 
Agade (a-ga'de), 20. 
Ahiiman (a'ri-man), 41. 
Ainus (I'nos), 68, 
Aix - la - Chapelle (aks - la- sha - pel'), 

peace of, 314. 
Ajaccio (a-ya'cho), 352. 
Akbar the Great (ak-ber), 230. 
Alabama (al-a-ba'ma), 448. 
Alaric (al'a-rik), 191. 
Alaska (a-las'ka), 448. 
Alcibiades (al-si-bl'a-dez), 108- 112. 
Alexander the Great (al-eg-zan'der), 

13, 125-132. 
Alexander I. of Russia, 358, 394, 402. 
Alexander II. of Russia, 418. 
Alexander III. of Russia, 408. 
Alexandria (al-eg zan'dri-a), founda- 
tion of, 128, 132. 
Algeciras (al-Ha-the'ras), conference 

of, 444. 
Algeria (al-je'ri-a), 442. 
Al-Mamun (al-ma-mon'), 205. 
Almeida (al-ma'e-da), 254. 
Alsace-Lorraine (al-zas' lor-ran'), 

388. 
Alva (al'va), 272. 
Amban (am'ban), 432. 
Ambracian Gulf (am-bra'shi-an 

gulf), 72. 
America (a-mer'i-ka), how named, 

254. 
Amiens (a-me-an'), peace of, 355. 
Amosis (a-mo'sis), 12. 
Angles (ang'glz), 192. 
Angora, battle of (an-go'ra), 230. 
Animal worship, 14. 
Annam (an-nam'), 442. 
Anne of England, 330-331. 
Antiochus the Great (an-ti'okus), 

152. 
Antonius, Marcus (an-to'-ni-us), 170. 



Antoninus, Pius (an-to-ni'nus pl'us), 

178. 
Apis (a-pis), 14. 
Apollo (a-pol'o), 119. 
Aquae Sextiae (a'kwe seks'ti-e), 158. 
Arabs (ar'abs), 5, 201, 205. 
Arbela (ar-be'la), battle of, 128. 
Arcadius (ar-ka'di-us), 181. 
Archaeology (ar-ka-ol'o-jy), 2. 
Archimedes (ar-ki-me'dez), 124. 
Archons in Athens (ar-konz), 81, 84, 

86. 
Areopagus (a-re-op'a-gus), 81, 84. 
Ares (a'rez), 1 19. 

Argentine Republic (ar'jen-ten), 355. 
Aryan peoples (a'ri-an), 5, 39, 48-49. 
Arians (a'ri-anz), religious sect, 191. 
Aristides (ar-is-ti'dez), 92, 99. 
Aristotle (ar'is-totl), 124, 131, 248. 
Armada, invincible (ar-ma'da), 270. 
Asinarus (as-i-na'rus), ill. 
Asoka (a-s6'ka), 52. 
Aspasia (as-pa'shi-a), 122. 
Ashur (ag'er), 22. 

Ashurbanipal (a-zor-ba'ni-pal), 22. 
Assuan (as-swan'), 438. 
Assyria (a-sir'i-a), 20, 22-23. 
Assyriol'ogy, 25. 
Athanasians, 191. 
Athena (a-the'ne), 103, 119. 
Athens (ath'enz), 72, 80-87, 89; 

destruction of, 96. 
Athos (ath'os) mount, 89, 93. 
Attica (at'i-ka), 72. 
Attila (at'i-la), 194 
Augsburg, religious peace of (agz'- 

berg), 260-263, 267. 
Augurs (a'ger), 134. 
Augustus (a-gus'tus), 172-174. 
Aurelian (a-re-lyan), 179. 
Austerlitz,battleof(ous'ter-lits),357. 
Australia (astra'lia), settlement of, 

435- 



INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 489 



Austrian Succession, war of (as'tri- 

an), 313- 
Avignon (a-ven-yoh'), 220. 

Baber (ba'ber), 230. 
Babylon (bab'i-Ion), 20,23 > descrip- 
tion of, 24. 
Babylonia (bab-i-15'ni-a), 19-29. 
Bacon (ba'kan), Sir Francis, 289, 

367- 
Bajazet (baj-a-zet'), 230, 232. 
Basques (baskz), 4. 
Bastille (bas-tel'), 342. 
Batouni (ba-tom'), 406. 
Bazaine (ba-zan'), 387, 388. 
Beauharnais (bo-ar-na'), Eugene de, 

359- 
Belgium (bel'ji-um), 382. 
Belisarius (bel-i-sa'ri-us), 192. 
Bell, inventor (bel), 374. 
Baluchistan (bel-o-chis-tan'), 130. 
Beneventum (ben-e-ven'tum), 144. 
Bentinck, William (ben'tingk), 429. 
Bible (bl'bl), 31-32, 257-260. 
Bill of Rights, 330. 
Bismarck (biz-mark), 385, 396, 397. 
Blenheim (blen'im), battle of, 305. 
Bliicher (bliich'er), general, 364. 
Boeotia (be-5'shia), 72. 
Boers (bors), 439. 
Bokhara (bo-kha'ra), 407. 
Boleyn, Anne (bul'in), 265. 
Bonaparte, Joseph, 359. 
Bonaparte, Louis, 359. 
Borodino (bor-6-de'no), 361. 
Bosnia (boz'ni-a), 406. 
Bosporus (bos'po-rus), 403. 
Boston (bos'ton), foundation of, 326. 
Bourgeoisie (bor-zhwa'se'), 383. 
Boxers (boks'erz), 474. 
Brahmans (bra'mans), 50. 
Brazil (bra-zil'), 454. 
Brienne (bre-en'), 352. 



Bright (brit), 425. 

Britain (brit'an), 168. 

Brussels (brus'elz'), 364. 

Brutus, Marcus (bro'tus), 169. 

Buddha (bo'da), 50, 51. 

Buenos Aires (bwa'nos I'rez), 390. 

Bulgaria (bul-ga'ri-a), 406. 

Burma (ber'ma), Bi'itish conquest 

of, 428. 
Byzantium (bi-zan'tium), 77. 

Caaba (ka'ba), 201. 

Caesar (se'zar), 163-170. 

Calhoun (kal-hon'), 449. 

California (kal-i-for'ni-a), 450. 

Calvin (kal'vin), 262. 

Cambodia (kam-bo'di-a), 442. 

Cambunian mountains (kam- 
biin'ian), 71. 

Campo Formio (kam-p6-for'me-5), 
treaty of, 353, 355. 

Canaan (ka'nan), 33. 

Canaanites (ka'nan-its), 33, 36. 

Canada (kan'a-da), French colony, 
301 ; British conquest of, 316. 

Canary Islands (ka-na'ri'), 391. 

Cannae (kan'e), battle of, 151. 

Canning (kan'ing), 390. 

Canute (ka-nut'), 210. 

Capua (kap'u-a), 151. 

Carbonari (kar-bo-na'ri), 399. 

Carnot (kar-no'), 348. 

Carolingians (kar-o-lin'ji-anz), 196. 

Carthage (kar'thaj), 144; destruc- 
tion of, 1 54. 

Cartwright (kart'rlt), 369. 

Catherine de Medici (kath'e-rin de 
ma'de-che), 268. 

Catherine of Aragon, 263. 

Catherine II. of Russia, 323. 

Catiline (kat'i-lln), 166. 

Cavaliers (ka-va-lers'), 293. 

Cavour (ka-vor'), 400, 405. 



490 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 



Celtic races (sel-tik), 6. 
Chaeronea (ker-5-ne'a), battle of, 

117. 
Chaldaea (kal-de'a), 20. 
Chalons (sha-lon'), 194. 
Chamberlain, Joseph (cham'ber- 

lan), 441. 
Chang Chih Tung (chang'-chii- 

diing'), 475. 
Charlemagne (char'le-man), 197-200. 
Charles Martel (charlzmar-ter),i96. 
Charles I. of England, 289, 291- 

295. 
Charles II. of England, 328-329. 
Charles II. of Spain, 304. 
Charles V., German Emperor, 234, 

259-262. 
Charles VI., candidate for the 

Spanish th rone,German Emperor, 

305- 
Charles VIII. of France, 242. 
Charles IX. of France, 268. 
Charles X. of France, 383. 
Charles XII. of Sweden, 321. 
Chartism (char'tism'), 425. 
Cheops (ke'ops), 11. 
Chien Lung (chien' lung'), 469. 
China (chl-na), ancient, 54-'^7 ; 

under the Mongols, 226-229, 373. 
Chow dynasty, 56, 60. 
Christ (krlst), 31, 174. 
Christianity, 180. 
Chronology, 7. 
Ch'un' Ch'iu', 57. 
Cicero (sis'e-ro), 166. 
Cimbri (sim'bri), 158. 
Cinna (sin'a), 159. 
Cisalpine Gaul, 148. 
Cleisthenes (klls'the-nez), 85, 86. 
Clement VII., Pope (klem'ent), 263, 

264. 
Cleon (kle'on), 107, 108. 
Cleopatra (kle-5-pa'tra), 170-171. 



Clermont,Councilof(kler-m6ri),22i. 

Clive (kllv), 317. 

Clovis (klo'vis), 194. 

Cobden (kob'den), 425. 

Cochin China (ko'chin chl'na), 442. 

Code Napoleon (kod na-po-la-oii'), 

355- 

Codrus (ko'drus), 81. 

Colbert (kol-bar'), 301. 

Coligny, 268. 

Colonies, Greek, 76-77 ; Roman, 
183 ; Spanish, 255-256, 390 ; Por- 
tuguese, 254 ; French, 301, 306, 
316, 442 ; British, 317, 421, 424, 
428-440 ; German, 443. 

Columbus (ko-lum'bus), 189, 252- 

253- 
Common-wealth (kom'on), 295. 
Confederate States of America, 450. 
Confucius (kon-fQ'shius), 57, 58. 
Congo Free State (kong'go), 444. 
Constantine the Great (kon'stan- 

tln), 180. 
Constantinople (kon-stan-ti-no'pl), 

n, 180, 235,403- 

Cook, James (kiik), 421. 
Copernicus (ko-per'ni-kus), 249. 
Corday, Charlotte (kor-da), 349. 
Cordova (kor'do-va), 205. 
Corea (ko-re'a), 64, 67, 68. 
Corinth (kor'inth), 72, 105 ; destruc- 
tion of, 153. 
Corn Laws, 426. 
Cortes, Spanish Parliament(k6r'tes), 

389- 
Cortez (kor'tez), 255. 
Crassus (kras'us), 163, 167. 
Crecy, battle of (kra-se), 241. 
Crimean War (kri-me'an), 404. 
Croesus (kre'sus), 42. 
Cromer, Lord, 438. 
Cromwell, Oliver (krum'wel), 294- 

297. 



INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 491 



Crusades, 221-223, 240. 

Cuba (ku'ba), 390. 

Cuneiform writing (cu-ne'-i-form), 

25-26. 
Cyaxares (sl-aks'a-rez), 23, 41. 
Cylon (si'lpn), 8 1-82. 
Cyprus (si'prus), 37, 234, 407. 
Cyrus (si'rus), 25, 35, 41-42. 
Czechs (cheks), 399. 

Dacians (da'shi-ans), 178. 

Daimios (di'myos), 458, 460, 462. 

Dalai Lama (da'lT ]a'ma\ 53. 

Dalhousie (dal-hou'zi), 430. 

Dalny, 410. 

Damascus (da-mas'kus), 204, 226. 

Danton (doii-ton'), 346, 350. 

Danube (dan'ub), 174, 357. 

Darius I. (da-rl'us), 43-45, 88. 

Darius III., 126, 129. 

Darwin, Charles (dar'win), 368. 

David (da'-vid), 34. 

Deccan (dek'kan), 47. 

Deceleian War (des-e-le'yan war), 

III. 
Decemvirs (de-sem'virs), 138. 
Delhi (del'hi), 207, 431. 
Delos (de'los), 72 ; confederacy of, 

99, 119. 
Delphi (del'fl), 72, 116, 119, 120. 
Demosthenes (de-mos'the-nez), 116. 
Deshima (de'shi-ma), 459. 
Desiderius (des-i-de'ri-us), 197. 
Dias, Bartholomew (de'as), 252. 
Dias, Mexican president, 453. 
Diderot (de-dro'), 367. 
Diet of Worms (vorms), 259. 
Diocletian (dl-5-kle'shian), 180. 
Domitian (do-mish'ian), 176. 
Dorians (do'ri-ans), 75. 
Draco (dra'ko), 82. 
Dragonades (drag-p-nadz'), 303. 
Drake, Sir Francis (drak), 287. 



Dravidians (dravi-dians), 48. 
Duma (dii'ma), 420. 
Dupleix (dii-plaks'), 316. 

Dutch Republic (duch), rise of the, 
274. 

East India Company, Dutch, 444. 

East India Company, English, 316- 
317,431- 

Ecclesia (ek-le-si'a), 86, loi. 

Edict of Nantes (nants), 269, 303. 

Edward the Confessor, 243. 

Egypt (e'jipt), 9-18 ; under the 
Ptolemies, 132 ; conquered by 
the Arabs, 204 ; British occupa- 
tion of, 438. 

Elba (el'ba), 363. 

Elizabeth of England (e-liz'a-beth), 
271, 283-288. 

Encyclopedia(en-si-klo pe'di-a),367. 

Epaminondas (e-pam-i-non'das), 
114. 

Ephesus (efe-sus), 72. 

Ephors (ef'ors), 100. 

Escorial (es-ko'ri-al). 270. 

Ethnology (eth-no'-lo gj), 3. 

Etruria (e-tro'ri-a), 133. 

Etruscans (e-trus'kanz), 153, 139. 

Euboea (u-be'a), 72. 

Euclid (u'klid), 124. 

Eugene, prince of Savoy (u-jen'), 

305- 
Eumenes (u'me-nez), 152. 
Euphrates (u-fra'tez), 19. 
Euripides (u-rip'i-dez), 102, 
Eylau (I'lou), 357. 

Fabius Maximus (fa'bi-us), 150. 
Fenians (fe'ni-anz), 427. 
Ferdinand of Aragon (fer'di-nand), 

240, 
Ferdinand VII. of Spain, 383. 
Ferdinand II., German Emperor, 

276. 



492 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY. 



Feudalism, 211-215. 

Finland (fin'land), 359. 

Finns (finz), 4. 

Five Classics, 59. 

Florence (flor'ens), 237, 246. 

Fo (Buddha), 53. 

Formosa (for-mo'sa), 68, 468. 

Four Books, 59. 

Francia, Dr. (fran'se-ii), 454. 

Francis I. of France (fran'sis), 234, 

270. 
Francis I. of Austria, German 

Emperor, 314, 359- 
Francis Joseph, 398. 
Frankfort, treaty of (frangk'fort), 

388. 
Franklin, Benjamin (frangk'lin), 

335-336. 
Frederic I., Barbarossa (fred'e-rik), 

246. 
Frederick III. of Brandenburg 

becomes King of Prussia with 

the title Frederick I., 311. 
Frederick William, duke of Prussia 

and elector of Brandenburg, 311. 
Frederick William I., second king 

of Prussia, 311-312. 
Frederick II., the Great, of Prussia, 

312-315, 377. 
Friedland (fred'land), 358. 
Fulton, Robert (ful'ton), 372. 

Galileo (ga-le-la'6), 250. 
Gambetta, Leon (gam-bet'ta), 388. 
Ganges (gan'jez), 47. 
Garibaldi (ga-re-bal'de), 399, 400. 
Gauls (galz), 133, 139. 
Gautama (gou'ta-ma), 51. 
Genesis (jen'e-sis), 32. 
Geneva (je-ne'va), 379. 
Genoa (jen'o-a), 222, 237, 373. 
George I. of England (jorj), 331. 
George II. of England, 316, 331. 



George III. of England, 332-333. 

Germanic races (jer-man'ik), 6, 190, 
191. 

Germany (jer'ma-ni), Romans in, 
168, 174; mediaeval, 245-247; 
reformation in, 258-262 ; Thirty 
Years' War in, 276-282 ; forma- 
tion of new empire, 394-398. 

Ghoorkas (gor'kaz), 469. 

Gibraltar (ji-bral'tar), 306, 357. 

Girondists (ji-ron'dists), 345. 

Gladiators (glad'i-a-tors), 161, 184. 

Godfrey of Bouillon (god'fri of 
bo yon'), 221. 

Gracchus, Caius (grak'us), 157. 

Gracchus, Tiberius, 157. 

Granada (gra-na'da), 240. 

Granicus (gra-ni'kus), battle of the 
river, 126. 

Greece (gres), 70-124; modern, 402. 

Greeks (greks), 6 ; their character, 
74-75 ; in India, 53. 

Gregory VII., Pope (greg'o-ri), 218. 

Guillotin (ge-yo-tan'), 347. 

Guises (giz-es), 268. 

Gunpowder Plot, 291. 

Gustavus Adolphus (gus-ta'vus), 
277. 

Gutenberg (go'ten-berg), 250. 

Gylippus (gil-ip'pus), no, in. 

Hadrian (ha'dri-an), 178. 

Haeckel, German Professor of 

Biology (hek'el), i. 
Halys river (ha'lis), 42. 
Hamilcar Barcas (ha-mil'kar bar'- 

kas), 147, 148. 
Hamilton, Alexander (ham'iltnn), 

445- 
Hamitic peoples (ha-mit'ik), 5. 
Hammurabi (ham-mo-ra'be), 20, 28. 
Han dynasty, 62-63. 
Hannibal (han'i-bal), 148-152. 



INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 493 



Hanseatic League (han-se-at'ik leg), 

238. 
Hapsburg, House of (haps'berg), 

247, 261. 
Hargreaves (har'grevz), 369. 
Harold (har'pld), 243. 
Haroun-al-Rashid (ha-ron'al-rash- 

id), 205. 
Hasdrubal (has'dro-bal), 151. 
Hastings (has'tingz), battle of, 243. 
Hegemony (hej'e-mon-i), meaning 

of, 105 ; of Thebes, 114. 
Hegira (hej'i-ra), 202. 
Heliaea (he-Ii-i'a), 84, 102. 
Hellas (hel'as), T]. 
Hellespont (hel'es-pont), 93. 
Helots (he'lots), 78. 
Helvetian Republic (hel-ve'shian), 

391- 
Henry IV. of Germany (hen'ri), 218. 
Henry the Navigator, 252. 
Henry VIII. of England, 263-264. 
Henry II. of France, 267. 
Hephaestus (he-fes'tus), 119. 
Heraclea (her-a-kle'a), battle of, 143. 
Herat (her-at'), 437. 
Herculaneum(her-kii-la'ne-um).i76. 
Herodotus (he-rod'6-tus), 103. 
Herzegovina (hert-se-go-ve'na), 406. 
Hieroglyphics (hi-er-o-gli'fiks), 16. 
Himalaya mountains (him-a'la-ya), 

47- 

Hipparchus (hi-par'kus), 85. 

Hippias (hip'i-as), 85. 

Hiram (hi'ram), 37. 

Hohenstaufen (h5-en-stou-fen) dy- 
nasty, 219, 246. 

Hohenzollern (ho-en-tsol-lern), 310, 
386. 

Holland (hol'and), 359, 382. 

Homer (ho'mer), 73. 

Hong-kong (hong' kong'), 435- 

Honorius (ho-n5'ri-us), 181. 



Horus (ho'rus), 14. 

Hubertusburg (ho-ber'tos-borg), 

treaty of, 315. 
Hudson (hud'son), 327, 372. 
Huguenots (hu'ge-nots), 267. 
Hulagu (hu la-gii), 226. 
Hundred Years' War, 241, 242. 
Hungarians (hung-ga'ri-ans), 5,215. 
Huns (hunz), 190, 193. 
Hunter, W. W. (hun'ter), 231. 
Hyksos (hik'soz), 12. 
Hyphasis river (hif'a-sis), 130. 

I Ching (e-ching), 59. 

India (in'di-a), ancient, 47-53 ; 

Mohammedan conquest of, 207- 

209. 
Indo-China, 442. 
Indus (in'dus), 47. 
Inquisition, 265-266. 
lonians (i-6'ni-ans), 75. 
Ionian sea, 71. 
Ireland (ir'land), 374. 
Isabella of Castile (iz-a-bel'a), 240, 

253, 261. 
Isaiah (l-za'ya), 32. 
I sis (i-sis), 14. 
Islam (is'lam), 202. 
Israel (iz'ra-el), 33, 34. 
Issus (is'us), battle of, 126. 
Isthmus of Panama (pa-na ma'), 381. 
Italy (it'a-li), during Middle Ages, 

237- 
Ito, Marquis (e'to), 465. 
*Ivan III., the Great (e-van'), 247. 
Ivan IV., the Terrible, 247. 
lyeyasu (i-ya-ya'su), 459. 

Jackson, Andrew, 446, 449. 

Jakoob Beg, 407. 

James VI. of Scotland (jamz) 

becomes James I. of England, 

245, 289. 



494 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 



James II. of England, 329-330. 

Jamestown (jamz toun), 326. 

Janus (ja'nus), 134. 

Japan (ja-pan'), ancient, 67-69, 373. 

Jefferson, Thomas (jef'er-son), 445. 

Jengiz Khan (jen'gis khan), 225. 

Jenner, Edward (jen'er), 380. 

Jermack (yer'mak), 247. 

Jerome Bonaparte (je-rom'), 359. 

Jerusalem (je-ro'sa-lem), 24, ;^2, 221. 

Jesuits (jez'u-its), 266. 

Jews (joz), 5, 24, 30-35, 176. 

Jimmu Tenno (jim'mu ten'no), 68. 

Jingu (jin'gu), 68. 

Joan of Arc (j6-an' pv ark), 241. 

John, king of England, 244. 

Jordan (jor'dan), 33. 

Joseph (jo'zef), 33. 

Josephine Beauharnais (jo'ze-fen), 

361. 
Judah (jo'da), 34, 35. 
Jupiter (jo'pi-ter), 134. 
Justinian (jus-tin'i-an), 182. 

Kang Hsi (kang' se'), 466, 468. 
Kanishka (ka-nish'ka), 52. 
Kant (kant), 367. 
Kapilav'astu (kap-i-la-vas'to), 51. 
Karnak (kar'nak), 14. 
Kashgar (kash-gar'), 409. 
Kau Ti (ga'o de'), 62. 
Khaibar pass (chi'ber), 47. 
Khiva (che'va), 407. 
Kiaochau (ki'ao-chou'), 443. 
Kioto (ke-o'to), 457. 
Kolarians (ko-lar'ians), 48. 
Koran (ko'ran), 203. 
Korea (ko-re'a), 463-465. 
Koreishites (ko-rish'its), 201. 
Kosciusko (kos-i-us'ko), 325. 
Kossuth, Louis (kosh'ot), 398. 
Kublai Khan (kob'li khan), 226. 
Kuldja (kol'ja), 408. 



Kuropatkin(ku-ro-pat'kin),General, 
4i3>4iS- 

Laconia (la-ko'ni-a), 72, 78. 
Lafayette (la-fa-yet'), 343. 
Lamaism (la'ma-ism), 53. 
Lancashire (lang'ka-shir), 370. 
Lancaster, House of (lang'kas-ter), 

245. 
Lao-tsze (la'o-tsa'), 60. 
Laplace (la-plas'), 367. 
Lapps (laps), 4. 
Latium (la'shi-um), 133. 
Laud, Archbishop (lad), 292, 293. 
Law, John (la), 308. 
Layard (la'ard), 25, 26. 
Lebanon (leb'a-non), 3;^. 
Lechfeld, battle of (lech'felt), 215. 
Legion, the Roman, 142. 
Leipzig (llp'sik), 362. 
Leonardo da Vinci (vin'che), 246. 
Leonidas (le-on'i-das), 95. 
Leopold of Belgium (le'o-pold), 444. 
Leopold, German emperor, 305. 
Lepidus (lep'i-dus), 170. 
Lesbos (lez'bos), 107. 
Leuthen, battle of (loi'-ten), 315. 
Leyden (ll'den), siege of, 274. 
Liao-tung peninsula, 466. 
Li Chi, or Book of Rites, 59. 
Liebig (le'big), 368. 
Ligurian Republic (li-gu'ri-an), 353. 
Li Hung Chang (le hong chang), 

465, 475- 
Lin, commissioner, 470. 
Lincoln, Abraham (ling'kon), 450, 

452. 
Liu Pang, 62. 
Liverpool (liv'er-pol), 372. 
Lombards (lom'bardz), 193. 
Louis Bonaparte (lo'is), 359. 
Louis XL, 242. 
Louis XIII., 298. 



INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 495 



Louis XIV., 299-306. 
Louis XV., 308-309. 
Louis XVL, 340, 343-347. 
Louis XVI IL, 363, 382. 
Louisiana (lo-e-zi-an'a), French 
colony, 301 ; purchased by U.S., 
. 446. 

Louis Napoleon, 384. 
Louis Philippe L (lo'e fi-lep'), 383. 
Loyola, Ignatius (l6-yo'la), 266. 
Lu, State of, 57, 58. 
Lucknow (luk'nou), 431. 
Lucullus (lu-kul'us), 162. 
Lun Yii, Confucian Analects, 59. 
Luther (lo'ther), Martin, 259-260. 
Liitzen, battle of (liit'sen), 279. 
Lycurgus (ll-ker'gus), 78. 
Lydia (lid'i-a), 42, 88. 

Macao (ma-kou'), 254. 

Macartney (ma-kart'ni), 470. 

Macedonia (mas-e-do'ni-a), 89, 152. 

Madagascar (mad-a-gas'kar), 442. 

Magna Charta (mag'na kar'ta), 244. 

Magnesia (mag-ne'shia), battle of, 
152. 

Magyars (mo'dyorz), sec Hungari- 
ans, 5, 215. 

Malian (ma'li-an) guh, 72. 

Malta (mal'ta), 37, 422. 

Manchester (man'ches-ter), 372. 

Manchuria (man-cho'ri-a), 409. 

Manchus (man-choz'), 318. 

Manila (ma-ne'la), battle of, 391. 

Marat (ma-rii'), 346, 349. 

Marathas (ma-rat'as), 231, 428. 

Marathon (mar'a-thon), battle of, 
89. 

Marco Polo (po'lo), 223, 228, 

Marconi (mar-ko'ne), 373. 

Marcus Aurelius (mar-kus a-re'li- 
us), 178. 

Mardonius (mar-d5'ni-us), 89, 97. 



Marduk (mar-duk), 24. 

Marengo (ma-reng'6), battle of, 355. 

Maria Theresa of Austria (niii- 

re'a te-re'sa), 313. 
Marie Antoinette (mar'i an-toi-net'), 

343- 
Marius (ma'ri-us), 157-159. 
Marlborough, Duke of (mal'bur-o), 

305, 331- 
Mars (marz), 119, 134. 
Marston (mars'ton) Moor, battle of, 

294. 
Mary Stuart, 284. 
Mary Tudor, 270, 283. 
Maryland (mer'i-land), 327. 
Massilia (ma-sil'i-a), "]"]. 
Maximilian of Bavaria (mak-si-mil'i- 

an), 276, 277. 
Maximilian of Mexico, 453. 
Mazarin (maz'a-rin), 299. 
Mazzini (mat-se'ne), 399. 
Medes (medz), 41. 
Medina (me-de'na), 202. 
Mediterranean (med"i-te-ra'ne-an), 

20-22, 163. 
Memphis (mem'fis), 11. 
Mencius (men'shi-us), 58. 
Menes (me'nez), 11. 
Merovingians (mer-5-vin'ji-anz), 195, 
Metaurus (ma-tou'rus), battle of 

the, 151. 
Metternich (met'ter-nich), 394, 395. 
Metz (mets), 388. 
Mexico (mek'si-ko), conquest of, 

255 ; recent history of, 450, 453. 
Michaelangelo (ml-kel-an'je-l5),246. 
Miletus (mi-le'tus), 72. 
Miltiades (mil-ti'a-dez), 89. 
Minamoto clan (min-a-mo'tp), 458. 
Ming dynasty (meng), 466. 
Ming-ti, 53. 

Mississippi Bubble (mis-i-sip'i), 308. 
Missouri Compromise(mi-zo'ri), 448. 



496 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 



Mithiidates(mith-ri-da'tez), 161-162. 

Mito, Prince (me'tp), 461. 

Moguls (mo-gulz')or Mughals (mo'- 

galz), 209, 230-231. 
Mohammed (mo-ham'ed), 201-203. 
Mohammed II., the Great, 232. 
Moltlfe (molt'ke), 386, 396. 
Mongolian race (mon-go'li-an), 3, 

4, 68. 
Mongols (mong'golz), 4, 225, 227. 
Monroe, James (mun-ro'), 446, 448. 
Montcorvin,Jean de (moh-kor-vah') 

229. 
Morocco (mo-rok'o), 443-444. 
Morse (mors), 373. 
Moscow (mos'kou), 226, 229, 247 ; 

burning of, 361. 
Moses (m5'zez), 32, 33. 
Mountainists, 345. 
Muhammad of Ghore (gor), 207. 
Mukden, battle of (mok-den'), 414. 
Mummies, 15. 
Mummius (mum'i-us), 152. 
Murat (mii-ra), 360. 
Muraviefif (mo-ra-ve-ef), 409. 
Mutsuhito (mot'so-shto), 462. 
Mycale (mik'a-le), 97. 
Mylae (mi'le), naval battle of, 146. 
Mytilene or Mitylene (mit-i-le'ne), 

107. 

Nanking (nan-king'), treaty of, 471. 

Nantes (nants ; French pron. nont), 

edict of, 269 ; its revocation, 

303- 
Naples, kingdom of (na'plz), 242. 
Napoleon Bonaparte (na-po'le-on), 

351, 352-365, 367. 
Napoleon III., 384. 
Narses (nar'sez), 191. 
Narva, battle of (nar'va), 321. 
Naseby (naz'bi), battle of, 294. 
National Assembly, French, 343. 



National Congress, Indian, 434. 
Navarino (na-va-re'no), battle of, 

403. 
Nebuchadnezzar (neb"u-kad-nez'- 

ar), 23, 24. 
Necho II. (ne'ko), 13, 24, 35. 
Negroes, 3. 

Nelson (nel'spn), 354, 357. 
Nerchinsk (ner-chinsk'), treaty of, 

318. 
Nero (ne'ro), 175. 
Nerva (ner'va), 176. 
Nestorians in China (nes-to'ri-anz), 

229. 
New Amsterdam (am'ster-dam), 327. 
New Zealand (ze'land), 435. 
Ney, Marshal (na), 383. 
Nicholas I. of Russia (nik'o-las), 

402, 404. 
Nicholas II., 419. 

Nicias (nish'i-as), 106, 107, 108-111. 
Nicopolis (ni-kop'o-lis), 232. 
Niemen river (ne'men), 358. 
Nihilists (ni'hil-ists), 418. 
Nile, battle of the, 354. 
Nimwegen (nim'wa-gen), treaty of, 

302. 
Nineveh (nin'e-ve), 22, 23. 
Nirvana (nir-va'na), 52. 
Nogi (no'ge), General, 413. 
Normans (nor'manz), 211. 
Norsemen (nors'men), 210. 
Northmen (north'men), 200, 210. 
Nullification, 449. 
Nystad (nii'stad), peace of, 322. 

Odoacer (o-do-a'ser), 181, 191. 
Okkodai (ok-ko-da'i), 226, 
Oligarchy, 76. 

Olympia (o-lim'pi-a), 120, 121. 
Olympus (6-lim'pus), 72, 119. 
Ommiads (5-ml'adz), 204, 205. 
Open Door, 453. 



INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 497 



Opium War, 470-471. 
Optimates, 159. 
Orange Free State, 439. 
Orleans (or'le-anz), 242. 
Ormuzd (or'nmzd), 41. 
Osiris (6-sl'ris), 14. 
Osman (os-man'), 231. 
Ostracism (os'tra-cism), 86. 
Ostrogoths (os'tro-goths), 190. 
Ottawa (ot-a'wa), 440. 
Otto I., the Great (ot'to), 215. 
Ottoman Turks (ot'o-man), 231. 
Oyama (o-ya'ma), 413- 

Palatinate, War of the (pa-lat'i-nat), 

304- 
Palestine (pal'es-tln), 33, 35, 36. 
Pamir (pa-mer'), 408. 
Panama Canal (pa-na-ma), 381. 
Papal States, 196 ; their end, 401. 
Paris (par'is), 210, 300; treaty of, 

336, 343, 383 ; siege of, 387. 
Parmenio (par-me'ni-o), 128. 
Parsees (par'sez), 41. 
Parthenon (par'the-non), 103. 
Parthians (par'thi-ans), 178, 179. 
Pasteur (pas-ter'), 368. 
Patricians (pa-tri'shanz), 137. 
Paul (pal), 32. 
Pausanias (pa-sa'ni-as), 98. 
Peel, Sir Robert (pel), 426. 
Pelopidas (pe-lop'i-das), 114. 
Peloponnesus (per'o-po-ne'sus), 72, 

95, 106, 120. 
Pennsylvania (pen-sil-va'ni-a), 327. 
Pericles (per'i-klez), 88, 101-104, 

106, 107, 122. 
Perioeci (per-i-e'ci), 78. 
Perry, Commodore (per'i), 460. 
Persia (per'sha), 129, 204, 226, 227, 

229, 437-- 
Peru (pe-ro'), conquest of, 255. 
Peter the Great (pe'ter), 318-323. 

G.H. 2 



Pharaoh (fa'ro), 22. 
Pharsallus (far-sa'lus), 168. 
Phidias (fid'i-as), 103. 
Philip of Macedon (fil'ip), 105, 115. 
Philip II. of Spain, 269-274. 
Philippine Islands (fil'ip-in), 453. 
Phoenicia (fe-nish'a), 35-38. 
Piedmont (ped'morit), 400. 
Pillnitz, declaration of (pil'nits), 345. 
Pipin (pep'in), 196. 
Piraeus (pi-re'us), 92, 96, 106. 
Pisistratus (pi-sis'tra-tus), 76, 85. 
Pitt, William, Earl of Chatham 

(pit), 316, 424. 
Pitt, William, the Younger, 347, 424. 
Pius IX. (pi'us), 401. 
Pizarro (pi-za'ro), 255. 
Plantagenets (plan-taj'e-nets), 244. 
Plataea (pla-te'a), 89, 97, 106, 107. 
Plato (pla'to), 124. 
Plebeians (ple-be'yanz), I37- 
Plehwe (pla'we), minister, 419. 
Plevna (plev'na), 406. 
Plymouth, in New England 

(plim'uth), 326. 
Poitiers, battle of (pwa-tya'), 241. 
Poland (po'land), division of, 323- 

325- 
Pompadour, Madame de (poh-pa- 

dor'), 308. 
Pompeii (pom-pa'ye), 176. 
Pompey (pom'pi), 162-168. 
Pondicherry (pon-di-sher'i), 316. 
Popes, origin of the, 187 ; height 

of their power, 219. 
Port Arthur (port ar'ther), 410, 414. 
Porto Rico (port'o re'ko), in 

American possession, 391. 
Portsmouth, peace of (ports'muth), 

416. 
Prehistoric times, 2. * 
Pretenders to the English crown, 

331- 



498 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 



Pride's Purge (prid), 294. 

Psalms (samz), 32. 

Psammetichus I. (sa-met'i-kus), 12, 

22. 
Ptolemies (tol'e-mis), 132. 
Pultowa, battle of (pol-to'va), 322. 
Punjab (pun-jab'), 207. 
Puritans (pu'ri-1%ns), 264. 
Pyramids (pir'a-midz), 11. 
Pyrenees (pir'e-nez), 204, 239. 
Pyrrhus (pir'us), 143. 

Quebec (kwe-bek'), 327. 

Ra (ra), 14. 

Rajputs (raj-pots')or Kshatriyas, 50. 
Raleigh, Sir Walter (ra'li), 288. 
Ramadhan (ra-ma-dan'), 203. 
Rameses (ram'e-sez), 12, 15. 
Regulus (reg'u-lus), 146. 
Reformation, the Protestant, 220, 

250. 
Restoration in England, 297. 
Resurrection, 15. 
Revolution, the French, 339-351. 
Ricci, Matteo (ret'che), 466. 
Richard I., the Lionhearted (rich'- 

ard), 244. 
Richelieu (resh-lye'), 279, 289-299. 
Robespierre (ro-bes-pyar'), 346, 

348-350- 
Rollo (rol'o), 211, 243. 
Romance languages, 185. 
Romanoff, dynasty of (ro-ma'nof), 

318. 
Rome (rom), 132-187 ; capital of 

modern Italy, 401. 
Romulus (rom'u-lus), 134. 
Romulus Augustulus (a-gus'tu-lus), 

181, 197. 
Roumania (ro-ma'ni-a), 405. 
Roundheads (round'hedz), 293. 
Rousseau (ro-s6'), 341. 



Rozhdestvensky(rosh-dest-vens'ki), 

admiral, 416. 
Rurik (ro'rik), 211. 
Russia (rush'a), 211, 247. 
Ryswick, treaty of (riz'wik), 304. 

Sadowa (sa'do-va) or Koniggratz 

(ke'nig-grats), battle of, 396. 
Saladin, Sultan of Egypt (sal'a-din), 

222. 
Salamis (sal'a-mis), 95, 96. 
Samaria (sa-ma'ri-a), 33, 35. 
Samarkand (sam-ar-kand'), 225,407. 
Samnites (sam'nits), 133, 142, 151. 
Samurai (sam'u-rl), 460. 
Sandwich Islands (sand'wich), 453. 
Sanskrit (san'skrit), 49. 
Santiago de Cuba (san-te-a'g5 da 

ko'ba), battle of, 391. 
Saracus (sar'a-kus), 23. 
Sardinia (sar-din'i-a), 205, 400. 
Sardis (sar'dis), 42, 88, 93. 
Sargon of Agade (sar'gon), 20, 29, 
Sargon of Assyria, 22. 
Satrapy (sat'ra-pi), 44. 
Satsuma clan (sat-sd'ma), 461. 
Saul (sal), n. 
Savannah (sa-van'a), 373. 
Saxons (sak'snz), 192, 197. 
Scandinavians (skan-di-na'vi-anz), 

6, 210. 
Schaal, Jesuit (shal), 466. 
Scipio (sip'i-5), 151, 154. 
Scythians (sith'i-anz), 43. 
Sea of Japan, battle of the, 416, 
Sebastopol (se-bas'to-pol), 405. 
Sedan (se-don'), battle of, 387. 
Sejanus (se-ja'nus), 175. 
Seljukian Turks (sel-jok-i-an), 220, 

221. 
Semitic peoples, 5, 201. 
September Massacres, 346. 
Sertorius (ser-to'ri-us), 162. 



INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 499 



Seti I.(se'ti), 12, 15. 

Seven Years' War, 315-317- 

Shah Jahan (sha ya-han'), 231. 

Shakespeare (shak'sper), William, 

■ 288. 

Shantung province (shan-tong'), 57. 

Shih Ching, or Book of Odes, 59. 

Shih Hwang Ti, 60, 61, 62. 

Shiites (she'itz), 204. 

Shimonoseki (shim-o-no-sek'e), 

treaty of, 409, 465. 
Shinto (shin'to), 461. 
Shipka Pass (ship'ka pas), 406. 
Shogunate (shog'un-at), 458-462. 
Shu Ching, or Book of History, 56, 

59- 
Siam (se-am'), 442. 
Siberia (sl-be'ri-a), 247, 318, 408. 
Sidon (si'don), 36. 
Sigismund of Hungary (sij'is-mund), 

232. 
Singapore (sing-ga-p6r'), 435- 
Slave trade, 38, 378. 
Slavic races (sla-vik), 6, 200. 
Socrates (sok'ra-tez), 103, 120, 122- 

124. 
Solferino (sol-fe-re'no). 400. 
Solomon (sol'o-mon), 34. 
Solon (so'lon), 83. 
Spain (span), 37, 205, 239, 240 ; in 

the 19th century, 389-391. 
Spanish colonies, 255-256 ; loss of 

the last, 390-391. 
Spanish Succession,Warofthe, 305. 
Sparta (spar'ta), 72, 76, 77-80. 
Stephenson, G. (ste'ven-son), 371. 
St. Helena (he-le'na). Napoleon at, 

364- 
St. Louis, 226. 
Stossel (stes'sel), 414. 
Strelitzes (stra-lits'es), 320. 
Sudras, 50, 52. 
Suleiman (so-la-man'), 232-234. 



Sulla (sul'a), 159-160. 

Sunnites (sun'its), 204, 209. 

Susa (so'sa), 129. 

Switzerland (swit'zer-land), 281, 391. 

Syracuse (sir'a-kus), ^T, no. 

Syria (sir'i-a), 204, 220, 226. 

Ta Ching dynasty, 466, 468. 
Taiping rebellion, 472. 
Taira clan (tl'ra), 458. 
Tai Tsung (ti'tsiing'), 63, 64. 
Tamerlane (tam-er-lan'), 229. 
Tang dynasty, 63. 
Taoism (tou'ism), 60. 
Tarentum (ta-ren'tum), ^T, 
Tarquinius (tar-kwin'i-us), 136. 
Tashkent (tash-kend'), 407. 
Tasmania (taz-ma'ni a), 435. 
Temujin (te'mu-jin), 225-226. 
Teutoburg (toi'to-borg'), forest of, 

174. 
Teutones (tu'to-nez), 158, 190. 
Teutons (tu'tons), 49, 189. 
Texas (tek'sas), 450. 
Thebes, in Egypt, 15. 
Thebes, in Greece (thebz), 72, 94, 

100 ; hegemony of, 1 14. 
Themistocles (the-mis'to-klez), 92, 

96, 98. 
Theodoric the Great (the-od'6-rik), 

191. 
Theodosius (the-6-do'shi-us), 64, 

181. 
Thermopylae (ther-mop'i-le), 72, 94, 

95- 
Thetes (the'tez), 84, 92. 
Thrace (thras), 43. 
Tiberius (ti-be'ri-us), 175. 
Tibet (tib'et), 432. 
Tibeto-Burman tribes, 48. 
Tientsin, treaty of (te-en'tsen'), 473. 
Tigris (ti'gris), 19. 
Tilsit (til'sit), peace of, 35S. 



500 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 



Timur (te-mor'), 229. 

Ting, Admiral, 465. 

Tissaphernes (tis-a-fer'nez), 111,112. 

Titus (tl'tus), 176, 184. 

Tokugawa (to-kii-ga'va) shogunate, 

459- 
Tolstoy (torstoi), 419. 
Tongking (tong-king'), 442. 
Tories (to'riz), 329. 
Toulon (to-loii'), siege of, 352. 
Tournaments, 213. 
Tours and Poitiers (tor and pwa- 

tya'), battle of, 196, 206. 
Trafalgar (traf-al-gar'), battle of, 

357- 
Trajan (tra'jan), 176-178. 
Transvaal (trans'val), 439. 
Trebonian (tre-bon'ian), 182. 
Trevethick (tre've-thik), 371. 
Tribunes of the Plebs, 137. 
Triumvirate (tri-um'vi-rat), 163, 170. 
Tsin dynasty, 61. 
Tughlak (togh'lak) dynasty, 207. 
Tunis (tu'nis), 401. 
Turanian races (tia-ra'ni-an), 3, 215. 
Turgot (tur-go'), 342- ' 
Turks (terks), 5, 181, 231-235. 
Tyrants, 76. 
Tyre(tTr), 24, 36, 128. 

Ulm (olm), battle of, 357. 
Urban II. (er'ban), 221. 
Ussuri river, 409. 

Utrecht, treaty of (u'trekt), 305, 378 ; 
union of, 274. 

Vaisyas (vish'yaz), 50. 

Valmy, battle of (val-rae'), 345. 

Vandals (van'dalz), 192. 

Vasco da Gama (ga'ma), 238, 252. 

Vedas (va'das), 49. 

Veneti (ven'e-tl), 133. 

Venetia (ve-ne'shia), 133, 194, 401. 



Venice (ven'is), 194, 222, 237. 

Vercellae (ver-sel'e), 158. 

Verdun, treaty of (ver-dun'), 200, 

210, 239. 
Versailles (ver-salz'), 300. 
Vespasianus (ves-pa'shian-us) Flav- 

ius, 176, 184. 
Vespucci (ves-po'che) Amerigo, 254. 
Victor Emmanuel (vik'tor e-man'- 

u-el), 400. 
Victoria (vik-to'ri-a), Queen and 

Empress, 431. 
Victoria, city, 436. 
Vienna (vi-en'a), siege of, 234 ; 

congress of, 394. 
Virginia (ver-jin'i-a), 326. 
Visigoths (viz'i-goths), 188, 190, 191. 
Vladivostok (vla-de-vos-tok'), 410. 
Voltaire (vol-tar'), 341. 
Vulcan (vul'kan), 119. 

Wales (vvalz), 193, 244-245. 
Wallenstein (val'len-stln), 277, 278- 

279. 
Walpole (wol'pol). Sir Robert, 331. 
Washington (wosh'ing-tpn), George, 

333, 334, 445- 
Waterloo (wa-ter-lo'), battle of, 364. 
Watt (wot), James, 369. 

Wei-Hai-Wei (wa',i-hl-wa'i), 474. 
Wellesley (welz'li), 428. 
Wellington (vvel'ing-tpn), Duke of, 

360, 364. 
Wells Williams (wil'yamz), 63. 
Westphalia (west-fa'lia), treaty of, 

280. 
Whigs (hwigz), 329. 
William the Conqueror (wil'yam), 

243- 
William I. of Germany, 386, 397. 
William and Mary, 330. 
William of Orange, 273-275. 



INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 501 



Witte (vvit'e), minister, 419. 
Worcester (vvus'ter), battle of, 296. 
Worms (vorms), diet of, 259. 
Wu Wang, 56. 

Xavier (zav'i-er), St. Francis, 266, 

459- 
Xeres de la Frontera (Ha-reth' da 

la fron-ta'ra), 204. 
Xerxes (zerk'sez), 93, 94, 95, 96. 

Yahveh (ya-va'), 32. 

Yalu river, 412. 

Yangtse river (yang'tse), 56. 



Yedo = Tokio, 459. 

Yesso (yes'so), 68. 

Yoritomo (yo-ri-to'mo), 458. 

York (york), house of, 249. 

Yorktown, battle of, 333. 

Yuan dynasty, 53, 207, 226. 

Yuan Shih Kai (yuan' shii-ki'), 475. 

Zagros (za'gros) mountains, 19, 129, 

178. 
Zama (za'ma), battle of, 151. 
Zeus (zus), 119, 120. 
Zoroaster (zo-ro-as'ter), 39, 41. 
Zwingli (zwingle), 262. 



ih 



ht, 17 



